POPULAR  TECHNOLOGY; 


PROFESSIONS  AND  TRADES. 


BY    EDWARD    HAZEN,    A.M., 

AUTHOR     OF 

'THE    SYMBOLICAL    SPELLING-BOOK,"   "THE    SPELLER   AND 
DEFINER,"  AND   "A    PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR." 


IN     TWO     VOLUMES. 

VOL.   I. 


NEW    YORK: 
HARPER   &   BROTHERS,   PUBLISHERS. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1341,  by 

HARPER  &   BROTHERS, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


CONTE  NTS 

OF 

THE    FIRST    VOLUME. 


Fag" 

Preface 7 

The  Agriculturist 13 

The  Horticulturist 28 

The  Miller          .  34 

The  Baker 39 

The  Confectioner 44 

The  Brewer,  and  the  Distiller 47 

The  Butcher 55 

The  Tobacco  Planter,  and  the  Tobacconist       .        .        .        .59 

The  Manufacturer  of  Cloth 60 

The  Dyer,  and  the  Calico- Printer 77 

The  Hatter 84 

The  Rope-Maker .        .        .91 

The  Tailor 96 

The  Milliner,  and  the  Lady's  Dress-Maker        .        .        .        .100 

The  Barber 104 

The  Tanner,  and  the  Currier Ill 

The  Shoe  and  Boot  Maker 116 

The  Saddler  and  Harness- Maker,  and  the  Trunk-Maker  .        .  121 

The  Soapboiler,  and  the  Candle-Maker 125 

The  Comb-Maker,  and  the  Brush-Maker 134 

The  Tavern-Keeper 142 

The  Hunter 147 

The  Fisherman 154 

The  Shipwright          .        .        .        .' 171 

The  Manner       .        .        .        . 178 

The  Merchant 187 

The  Auctioneer 204 

The  Clergyman  . 208 

The  Attorney  at  Law 215 

The  Physician 221 

The  Chemist 229 

The  Druggist  and  Apothecary .  236 

The  Dentist        .  240 

The  Teacher      .  249 


P  R  E  F  4  C  E. 


THE  following  work  has  been  written  for  the  use 
of  schools  and  families,  as  well  as  for  miscellaneous 
readers.  It  embraces  a  class  of  subjects  in  which  ev- 
ery individual  is  deeply  interested,  and  with  which,  as 
a  mere  philosophical  inspector  of  the  affairs  of  men, 
he  should  become  acquainted. 

They,  however,  challenge  attention  by  considera- 
tions of  greater  moment  than  mere  curiosity;  for,  in 
the  present  age,  a  great  proportion  of  mankind  pur- 
sue some  kind  of  business  as  means  of  subsistence  or 
distinction ;  and  in  this  country  especially,  such  pur- 
suit is  deemed  honorable  and,  in  fact,  indispensable  to 
a  reputable  position  in  the  community. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  a  fact  that  cannot  have  escaped 
the  attention  of  persons  of  observation,  that  many  in- 
dividuals mistake  their  appropriate  calling,  and  engage 
in  employments  for  which  they  have  neither  mental 
nor  physical  adaptation;  some  learn  a  trade  who 
should  have  studied  a  profession  ;  others  study  a  pro- 
fession who  should  have  learned  a  trade.  Hence 
arise,  in  a  great  measure,  the  ill  success  and  discon- 
tent which  so  frequently  attend  the  pursuits  of  men. 

For  these  reasons,  parents  should  be  particularly 
cautious  in  the  choice  of  permanent  employments  for 
their  children  ;  and,  in  every  case,  capacity  should  be 
especially  regarded,  without  paying  much  attention  to 
the  comparative  favor  in  which  the  several  employ- 
ments may  be  held  ;  for  a  successful  prosecution  of  an 
humble  business  is  far  more  honorable  than  inferior- 
ity or  failure  in  one  which  may  be  greatly  esteemed. 

To  determine  the  particular  genius  of  children,  pa- 
rents should  give  them,  at  least,  a  superficial  knowl- 
edge of  the  several  trades  and  professions.  To  d*o 
this  effectually,  a  systematic  course  of  instruction 


V1U  PREFACE. 

should  be  given,  not  only  at  the  family  fireside  and  in 
the  schoolroom,  but  also  at  places  where  practical  ex 
hibitions  of  the  several  employments  may  be  seen. 
These  means,  together  with  a  competent  literary  edu- 
cation, and  some  tools  and  other  facilities  for  mechan- 
ical operations,  can  scarcely  fail  of  furnishing  clear 
indications  of  intellectual  bias. 

The  course  just  proposed  is  not  only  necessary  to 
a  judicious  choice  of  a  trade  or  profession,  but  also  as 
means  of  intellectual  improvement ;  and  as  such  it 
should  be  pursued,  at  all  events,  even  though  the 
choice  of  an  employment  were  not  in  view. 

We  are  endowed  with  a  nature  composed  of  many 
faculties  both  of  the  intellectual  and  the  animal  kinds, 
and  the  reasoning  faculties  were  originally  designed 
by  the  Creator  to  have  the  ascendency.  In  the  pres- 
ent moral  condition  of  man,  however,  they  do  not 
commonly  maintain  their  right  of  precedence.  Thia 
failure  arises  from  imbecility,  originating,  in  part,  from 
a  deficiency  in  judicious  cultivation,  and  from  the  su- 
perior strength  of  the  passions. 

This  condition  is  particularly  conspicuous  in  youth, 
and  shows  itself  in  disobedience  to  parents,  and  in 
various  other  aberrations  from  moral  duty.  If,  there- 
fore, parents  would  have  their  children  act  a  reasona- 
ble part,  while  in  their  minority,  and,  also,  after  they 
have  assumed  their  stations  in  manhood,  they  must 
pursue  a  course  of  early  instruction,  calculated  to  se- 
cure the  ascendency  of  the  reasoning  faculties. 

The  subjects  for  instruction  best  adapted  to  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  young  mind  are  the  common  things  with 
which  we  are  surrounded.  This  is  evident  from  the 
fact,  that  it  uniformly  expands  with  great  rapidity  un- 
der their  influence  during  the  first  three  or  four  years 
of  life  ;  for,  it  is  from  them,  children  obtain  all  their 
ideas,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  language  by 
which  they  are  expressed. 

The  rapid  progress  of  young  children  in  the  acqui 
sition  of  knowledge  often  excites  the  surprise  of  pa- 
rents of  observation,  and  the  fact  that  their  improve- 
ment is  almost  imperceptible,  after  they  have  attained 


PREFACE.  IX 

to  the  age  of  four  or  five  years,  is  equally  surprising. 
Why,  it  is  often  asked,  do  not  children  continue  to  ad- 
vance in  knowledge  with  equal  and  increased  rapidity, 
especially,  as  their  capabilities  increase  with  age  ? 

The  solution  of  this  question  is  not  difficult.  Chil- 
dren continue  to  improve,  while  they  have  the  means 
of  doing  so ;  but,  having  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
objects  within  their  reach,  at  least,  so  far  as  they 
may  be  capable  at  the  time,  their  advancement  must 
consequently  cease.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  re- 
mark, that  the  march  of  mind  might  be  continued 
with  increased  celerity,  were  new  objects  or  subjects 
continually  presented. 

In  supplying  subjects  for  mental  improvement,  as 
they  may  be  needed  at  the  several  stages  of  advance- 
ment, there  can  be  but  little  difficulty,  since  we  are 
surrounded  by  works  both  of  nature  and  of  art.  In 
fact,  the  same  subjects  may  be  presented  several 
times,  and,  at  each  presentation,  instructions  might  be 
given  adapted  to  the  particular  state  of  improvement 
in  the  pupil. 

Instructions  of  this  nature  need  never  interfere  in- 
juriously with  those  on  the  elementary  branches  of 
education,  although  the  latter  would  undoubtedly  be 
considered  of  minor  importance.  Had  they  been  al- 
ways regarded  in  this  light,  our  schools  would  now 
present  a  far  more  favorable  aspect,  and  we  should 
have  been  farther  removed  from  the  ignora  ce  and  the 
barbarism  of  the  middle  ages. 

Were  this  view  of  education  generally  adopted, 
teachers  would  soon  find,  that  the  business  of  commu- 
nicating instructions  to  the  young  has  been  changed 
from  an  irksome  to  a  pleasant  task,  since  their  pupils 
will  have  become  studious  and  intellectual,  and,  con- 
sequently, more  capable  of  comprehending  explana- 
tions upon  every  subject.  Such  a  course  would  also 
be  attended  with  the  incidental  advantage  of  good 
conduct  on  the  part  of  pupils,  inasmuch  as  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  understanding  over  the  passions  uniformly 
tends  to  this  result. 

For  carrying  into  practice  a  system  of  intellectual 


X  PREFACE. 

education,  the  following  work  supplies  as  great  an 
amount  of  materials  as  can  be  embodied  in  the  same 
compass.  Every  article  may  be  made  the  foundation 
of  one  lecture  or  more,  which  might  have  reference 
not  only  to  the  particular  subject  on  which  it  treats, 
but  also  to  the  meaning  and  application  of  the  words. 

The  articles  have  been  concisely  written,  as  must 
necessarily  be  the  case  in  all  works  embracing  so 
great  a  variety  of  subjects.  This  particular  trait, 
however,  need  not  be  considered  objectionable,  since 
all  who  may  desire  to  read  more  extensively  on  any 
particular  subject,  can  easily  obtain  works  which  are 
exclusively  deyoted  to  it. 

Prolix  descriptions  of  machinery  and  of  mechani- 
cal operations  have  been  studiously  avoided ;  for  it 
has  been  presumed,  that  all  who  might  have  perseve- 
rance enough  to  read  such  details,  would  feel  curiosi- 
ty sufficient  to  visit  the  shops  and  manufactories,  and 
see  the  machines  and  operations  themselves.  Never- 
theless, enough  has  been  said,  in  all  cases,  to  give  a 
general  idea  of  the  business,  and  to  guide  in  the  re 
searches  of  those  who  may  wish  to  obtain  informa- 
tion by  the  impressive  method  of  actual  inspection. 

A  great  proportion  of  the  whole  work  is  occupied 
m  recounting  historical  facts,  connected  with  the  in 
vention  and  progress  of  the  arts.  The  author  was  in 
duced  to  pay  especial  attention  to  this  branch  of  his- 
tory, from  the  consideration,  that  it  furnishes  very 
clear  indications  of  the  real  state  of  society  in  past 
ages,  as  well  as  at  the  present  time,  and  also  that  it 
would  supply  the  reader  with  data,  by  which  he  might, 
in  some  measure,  determine  the  vast  capabilities  of 
man. 

This  kind  of  historical  information  will  be  especial- 
ly beneficial  to  the  youthful  mind,  by  inducing  a  habit 
of  investigation  and  antiquarian  research.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  a  knowledge  of  the  origin  and  progress 
of  the  various  employments  which  are  in  active  oper- 
ation all  around,  will  throw  upon  the  busy  world  an 
aspect  exceedingly  interesting. 
It  may  be  well,  however,  to  caution  the  reader 


PREFACE.  XI 

against  expecting  too  much  information  of  this  kind, 
in  regard  to  most  of  the  trades  practised  in  very  an- 
cient times.  Many  of  the  most  useful  inventions 
were  effected,  before  any  permanent  means  of  record 
had  been  devised ;  and,  in  after  ages,  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  the  useful  arts  were  practised  almost 
exclusively  by  slaves.  The  latter  circumstance  led 
to  their  general  neglect  by  the  writers  among  these 
distinguished  people. 

The  information  which  may  be  obtained  from  this 
work,  especially  when  accompanied  by  the  inspection 
of  the  operations  which  it  describes,  may  be  daily  ap- 
plied to  some  useful  purpose.  It  will  be  particularly 
valuable  in  furnishing  subjects  for  conversation,  and  in 
preventing  the  mind  from  continuing  in,  or  from  sinking 
into,  a  state  of  indifference  in  regard  to  the  busy  scenes 
of  this  world. 

In  the  composition  of  this  work,  all  puerile  expres- 
sions have  been  avoided,  not  only  because  they  would 
be  offensive  to  adult  individuals  of  taste,  but  because 
they  are  at  least  useless,  if  not  positively  injurious,  to 
younger  persons.  What  parent  of  reflection  would 
suffer  his  children  to  peruse  a  book  calculated  to  in- 
duce or  confirm  a  manner  of  speaking  or  writing, 
which  he  would  not  have  them  use  after  having  arri- 
ved to  manhood  1  Every  sentence  may  be  rendered 
perfectly  plain  by  appropriate  explanations  and  illus- 
trations. 

No  formal  classification  of  the  professions  and 
trades  has  been  adopted,  although  those  articles  which 
treat  of  kindred  subjects  have  been  placed  near  each 
other,  and  in  that  order  which  seemed  to  be  the  most 
natural.  The  paragraphs  of  the  several  articles  have 
been  numbered  for  the  especial  accommodation  of 
classes  in  schools,  but  this  particular  feature  of  the 
work  need  meet  with  no  serious  objection  from  mis- 
cellaneous readers,  as  it  has  no  other  effect,  in  refer- 
ence to  its  use  by  them,  than  to  give  it  the  aspect  of 
a  school-book. 

While  writing  the  articles  on  the  different  subjects, 
the  author  consulted  several  works  which  embr^ed 


Ill  PREFACE. 

the  arts  and  sciences  generally,  as  well  as  many 
which  were  more  circumscribed  in  their  objects.  He, 
however,  relied  more  upon  them  for  historical  facts 
than  for  a  knowledge  of  the  operations  and  processes 
which  he  had  occasion  to  detail.  For  this  he  depend- 
ed, as  far  as  practicable,  upon  his  own  personal  re- 
searches, although  in  the  employment  of  appropriate 
phraseology,  he  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  pred- 
ecessors. 

With  the  preceding  remarks,  the  author  submits  his 
work  to  the  public,  in  the  confident  expectation,  that 
the  subjects  which  it  embraces,  that  the  care  which 
has  been  taken  in  its  composition,  and  that  the  skill 
of  the  artists  employed  in  its  embellishment,  will  se- 
cure to  it  an  abundant  and  liberal  patronage. 


THE    AGRICULTURIST. 

1.  AGRICULTURE  embraces,  in   its  broad  applica- 
tion, whatever  relates  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fields, 
with  the  view  of  producing  food  for  man  and  those 
animals  which  he  may  have  brought  into  a  state  of 
domestication. 

2.  If  we  carry  our  observations  so  far  back  as  to 
reach  the  antediluvian  history  of  the  earth,  we  shall 
find,  from  the  authority  of  Scripture,  that  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil  was  the  first  employment  of  man, 
after  his  expulsion  from  the  garden  of  Eden,  when 
he  wa»  commanded  to  till  the  ground  from  which  he 
had  been  taken.      We  shall  also  learn  from  the  same 
source  of  information,  that "  Cain  was  a  husbandman," 
and  that  "Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep."     Hence 
it  may  be  inferred,  that  Adam  instructed  his  sons 


14  THE     AGRICULTURIST. 

in  the  art  of  husbandry ;  and  that  they,  in  turn,  com. 
municated  the  knowledge  to  their  posterity,  together 
with  the  superadded  information  which  had  resulted 
from  their  own  experience.  Improvement  in  this  art 
was  probably  thenceforth  progressive,  until  the  over- 
whelming catastrophe  of  the  flood. 

3.  After  the  waters  had  retired  from  the  face  of 
the  earth,  Noah  resorted  to  husbandry,  as  the  cer- 
tain  means-  of  procuring  the  necessaries  and  com. 
forts  of  life.     The  art  of  cultivating  the  soil  was  un- 
^nterruptedly  preserved  in  many  branches  of  the  great 
family  of  Noah ;    but,  in  others,  it  was   at  length 
entirely  lost.     In  the  latter  case,  the  people,  having 
sunk  into  a  state  of  barbarism,  depended  for  subsist- 
ence on  the  natural  productions  of  the  earth,  and  on 
such  animals  as  they  could  contrive  to  capture  by 
hunting  and  fishing.     Many  of  these  degenerate  tribes 
did  not  emerge  from  this  condition  for  several  suc- 
ceeding ages ;  while  others  have  not  done  so  to  the 
present  day. 

4.  Notwithstanding  the  great  antiquity  of  agricul- 
ture, the  husbandmen,  for  several  centuries  immedi- 
ately succeeding  the  deluge,  seem  to  have  been  but 
little  acquainted  with  any  proper  method  of  restoring 
fertility  to  exhausted  soils  ;  for  we  find  them  frequent- 
ly changing  their  residence,  as  their  flocks  and  herds 
required  fresh  pasturage,  or  as  their  tillage  land  be. 
came  unproductive.     As  men,  however,  became  more 
numerous,  and  as  their  flocks  increased,  this  practice 
became  inconvenient  and,  in  some  cases,  impractica- 
ble.    They  were,  therefore,  compelled,  by  degrees,  to 
confine  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  their  farming  oper- 
ations, to  lands  of  more  narrow  and  specified  limits. 

5.  The  Chaldeans  were  probably  the  people  who 
first  adopted  the  important  measure  of  retaining  per- 
petual possession  of  the  soil  which  they  had  cultiva- 
ted ;  and,  consequently,  were  among  the  first  who  be- 


THE     AGRICULTURIST.  15 

came  skilful  in  agriculture.  But  all  the  great  na- 
tions of  antiquity  held  this  art  in  the  highest  estima- 
tion, and  usually  attributed  its  invention  to  superhu- 
man agency.  The  Egyptians  even  worshipped  the 
image  of  the  ox  in  gratitude  for  the  services  of  the 
living  animal  in  the  labours  of  the  field. 

6.  The  reader  of  ancient  history  can  form  some 
idea  of  the  extent  to  which  this  art  was  cultivated  in 
those  days,  from  the  warlike  operations  of  different 
nations  ;  for,  from  no  other  source,  could  the  great 
armies  which  were  then  brought  into  the  field,  have 
been  supplied  with  the  necessary  provisions.     The 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  who  were  more  celebrated 
than  any  other  people  for  their  military  enterprise, 
were  also  most  attentive  to  the  proper  cultivation  of 
the  soil ;  and  many  of  their  distinguished  men,  espe- 
cially  among  the  Romans,  were  practical  husbandmen. 

7.  Nor  was  agriculture  neglected  by  the  learned 
men  of  antiquity.     Several  works  on  this  subject,  by 
Greek   and   Latin  authors,  have  descended  to  our 
times  ;  and  the  correctness  of  many  of  the  principles 
which  they  inculcate,  has  been  confirmed  by  modern 
experience. 

8.  Throughout  the  extensive  empire  of  Rome,  ag- 
riculture maintained  a  respectable  standing,  until  the 
commencement  of  those  formidable  invasions  of  the 
northern  hordes,  which,  finally,  nearly  extinguished 
the  arts  and  sciences  in  every  part  of  Europe.     Du- 
ring the  long  period  of  anarchy  which  succeeded  the 
settlement  of  these  barbarians  in  their  newly-acquired 
possessions,  pasturage  was,  in  most  cases,  preferred 
to  tillage,  as  being  better  suited  to  their  state  of  civ. 
ilization,  and  as  affording  facilities  of  removal,  in  ca- 
ses of  alarm  from  invading  enemies.     But,  when  per- 
manent governments  had  been  again  established,  and 
when  the  nations  enjoyed  comparative  peace,  the  reg. 
ular  cultivation  of  the  soil  once  more  revived. 


16  THE     AGRICULTURIST. 

9.  The  art  of  husbandry  was  at  a  low  ebb  in  Eng- 
land, until  the  fourteenth  century,  when  it  began  to  be 
practised  with  considerable  success  in  the  midland 
and  southwestern  parts  of  the  island  ;  yet,  it  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  cultivated  as  a  science,  until  the 
latter  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.     The  first  book 
on  husbandry,  printed  and  published  in  the  English 
language,  appeared  in  1534.     It  was  written  by  Sir 
A.  Fitzherbert,  a  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas,  who 
had  studied  the  laws  of  vegetation,  and  the  nature  of 
soils,  with  philosophical  accuracy. 

10.  Very  little  improvement  was  made  on  the  the. 
ory  of  this  author,  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  years, 
when  Sir  Hugh  Platt  discovered  and  brought  into  use 
several  kinds  of  substances  for  fertilizing  and  resto- 
ring exhausted  soils. 

11.  Agriculture   again   received  a  new  impulse, 
about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  and,  in 
1793,  a  Board  of  Agriculture  was  established  by  an 
act  of  Parliament,  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair,  who  was  elected  its  first  president.     Through 
the  influence  of  this  board,  a  great  number  of  agri- 
cultural societies  have  been  formed  in  the  kingdom, 
and  much  valuable  information  on  rural  economy  has 
been  communicated  to  the  public,  through  the  me- 
dium of  a  voluminous  periodical  under  its  superin- 
tendence. 

12.  After  the  example  of  Great  Britain,  agricultu 
ral  societies  have  been  formed,  and  periodical  jour, 
nals  published,  in  various  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States.     The  prin. 
cipal  publications  devoted  to  this  subject  in  this  coun- 
try, are  the  American  Farmer,  at  Baltimore  ;  the  New- 
England  Farmer,  at  Boston  ;  and  the  Cultivator,  at 
Albany. 

13.  The  modern  improvements  in  husbandry  con* 
sist,  principally,  11  the  proper  application  of  manures, 


THE     AiJRI  CULTU  RI  ST.  17 

in  the  mixture  of  different  kinds  of  earths,  in  the  use 
of  plaster  and  lime,  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  in  adapt- 
ing  the  crop  to  the  soil,  in  the  introduction  of  new 
kinds  of  grain,  roots,  grasses,  and  fruits,  as  well  as 
in  improvements  in  the  breeds  of  domestic  animals, 
and  in  the  implements  with  which  the  various  opera- 
tions  of  the  art  are  performed. 

14.  For  many  of  the  improved  processes  which  re- 
late  to  the  amelioration  of  the  soil,  we  are  indebted  to 
chemistry.     Before  this  science  was  brought  to  the 
aid  of  the  art,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  were  chiefly 
guided  by  the  precept  and  example  of  their  predeces- 
sors, which  were  often  inapplicable.     By  the  aid  of 
chemical  analysis,  it  is  easy  to  discover  the  constitu- 
ent parts  of  different  soils ;  and,  when  this  has  been 
done,  there  is  but  little  difficulty  in  determining  the 
best  mode  of  improving  them,  or  in  applying  the  most 
suitable  crops. 

15.  In  the  large  extent  of  territory  embraced  with- 
in the  United  States,  there  is  great  variation  of  soil 
and  climate ;  but,  in  each  state,  or  district,  the  atten- 
tion of  the  cultivators  is  directed  to  the  production  of 
those  articles  which,  under  the  circumstances,  prom- 
ise to  be  the  most  profitable.     In  the  northern  por- 
tions of  our  country,  the  cultivators  of  the  soil  are 
called  farmers.     They  direct  their  attention  chiefly 
to  the  production  of  wheat,  rye,  corn,  oats,  barley, 
peas,  beans,  potatoes,  pumpkins,  and  flax,  together 
with  grasses  and  fruits  of  various  kinds.     The  same 
class  of  men,  in  the  Southern  states,  are  usually  de- 
nominated planters,  who  confine  themselves  princi- 
pally to  tobacco,  rice,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  or  hemp. 
In  some  parts  of  that  portion  of  our  country,  however, 
rye,  wheat,  oats,  and  sweet  potatoes,  are  extensively 
cultivated  ;  and,  in  almost  every  part,  corn  is  a  fa- 
vourite article. 

16    The  orocess  of  cultivating  most  of  the  produc- 


18  THE     AGRICULTURIST. 

tions  which  have  been  mentioned,  is  nearly  the  same. 
In  general,  with  the  occasional  exception  of  new  lands, 
the  plough  is  used  to  prepare  the  ground  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  seed.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  peas, 
and  the  seeds  of  hemp  and  flax,  are  scattered  with  the 
hand,  and  covered  in  the  earth  with  the  harrow.  In 
Great  Britain,  such  seeds  are  sown  in  drills  ;  and  this 
method  is  thought  to  be  better  than  ours,  as  it  admits 
of  the  use  of  the  hoe,  while  the  vegetable  is  growing. 

17.  Corn,  beans,  potatoes,  and  pumpkins,  are  cov- 
ered in  the  earth  with  the   hoe.      The  ground   is 
ploughed  several  times  during  the  summer,  to  make 
it  loose,  and  to  keep  down  the  weeds.     The  hoe  is 
also  used  in  accomplishing  the  same  objects,  and  in 
depositing  fresh  earth  around  the  growing  vegetable. 

18.  When  ripe,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  peas,  are 
cut  down  with  the  sickle,  cradle,  or  scythe;  while 
hemp  and  flax  are  pulled  up  by  the  roots.     The  seeds 
are  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  plants  with 
the  flail,  or  by  means  of  horses  or  oxen  driven  round 
upon  them.     Of  late,  threshing  machines  are  used  to 
effect  the  same  object.     Chaff,  and  extraneous  mat- 
ter generally,  are  separated  from  the  grain,  or  seeds, 
by  means  of  a  fanning-mill,  or  with  a  large  fan  made 
of  the  twigs  of  the  willow.     The  same  thing  was  for- 
merly,  and  is  yet  sometimes,  effected  by  the  aid  of  a 
current  of  air. 

19.  When  the  corn,  or  maize,  has  become  ripe,  the 
ears,  with  the  husks,  and  sometimes  the  stalks,  are 
deposited  in  large  heaps.     To  assist  in  stripping  the 
husks  from  the  ears,  it  is  customary  to  call  together 
the  neighbours.     In  such  cases,  the  owner  of  the  corn 
provides  for  them  a  supper,  together  with  some  means 
of  merriment  and  good  cheer. 

20.  This  custom  is  most  prevalent,  where  the  great- 
er part  of  the  labour  is  performed  by  slaves.     The 
blacks,  when  assembled  for  a  husking  match,  choose 


THE     AGRICULTURIST.  19 

a  captain,  whose  business  it  is  to  lead  the  song,  while 
the  rest  join  in  chorus.  Sometimes,  they  divide  the 
corn  as  nearly  as  possible  into  two  equal  heaps,  and 
apportion  the  hands  accordingly,  with  a  captain  to 
each  division.  This  is  done  to  produce  a  contest  for 
the  most  speedy  execution  of  the  task.  Should  the 
owner  of  the  corn  be  sparing  of  his  refreshments,  his 
want  of  generosity  is  sure  to  be  published  in  song  at 
every  similar  frolic  in  the  neighborhood. 

21.  Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  and  potatoes  of  all  kinds, 
were  unknown  in  the  eastern  continent,  until  the  dis- 
covery of  America.    Their  origin  is,  therefore,  known 
with  certainty ;   but  some  of  the  other  productions 
which  have  been  mentioned,  cannot  be  so  satisfacto- 
rily traced.     This  is  particularly  the  case  with  re- 
gard to  those  which  have  been  extensively  cultivated 
for  many  centuries. 

22.  The  grasses  have  ever  been  valuable  to  man, 
as  affording  a  supply  of  food  for  domestic  animals. 
Many  portions  of  our  country  are  particularly  adapt- 
ed to  grazing.     Where  this  is  the  case,  the  farmers 
usually  turn  their  attention  to  raising  live  stock,  and 
to  making  butter  and  cheese.      Grass  reserved  in 
meadows,  as  a  supply  of  food  for  the  winter,  is  cut  at 
maturity  with  a  scythe,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  stored  in 
barns,  or  heaped  in  stacks. 

23.  Rice  was  first  cultivated  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
Asia,  and,  from  the  earliest  ages,  has  been  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  food  among  the  Chinese  and  Hindoos. 
To  this  grain  may  be  attributed,  in  a  great  measure, 
the  early  civilization  of  those  nations ;  and  its  adapt- 
ation to  marshy  grounds  caused  many  districts  to  be- 
come populous,  which  would  otherwise  have  remain- 
ed irreclaimable  and  desolate. 

24.  Rice  was  long  known  in  the  east,  before  it  was 
introduced  into  Egypt  and  Greece,  whence  it  spread 
over  Africa  generally,  and  the  southern  parts  of  Eu- 


20  THE    AGRICULTURIST. 

rope.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  all  the  warm  parts  of 
the  globe,  chiefly  on  grounds  subject  to  periodical  in- 
undations. The  Chinese  obtain  two  crops  a  year 
from  the  same  ground,  and  cultivate  it  in  this  way 
from  generation  to  generation,  without  applying  any 
manure,  except  the  stubble  of  the  preceding  crop,  and 
the  mud  deposited  from  the  water  overflowing  it. 

25.  Soon  after  the  waters  of  the  inundation  have 
retired,  a  spot  is  inclosed  with  an  embankment,  light- 
ly ploughed  and  harrowed,  and  then  sown  very  thick- 
ly with  the  grain.     Immediately,  a  thin  sheet  of  water 
is  brought  over  it,  either  by  a  stream  or  some  hy- 
draulic machinery.     When  the  plants  have  grown  to 
the  height  of  six  or  seven  inches,  they  are  transplant- 
ed in  furrows  ;  and  again  water  is  brought  over  them, 
and  kept  on,  until  the  crop  begins  to  ripen,  when  it  is 
withheld. 

26.  The  crop  is  cut  with  a  sickle,  threshed  with  a 
flail,  or  by  the  treading  of  cattle ;    and  the  husks, 
which  adhere  closely  to  the  kernel,  are  beaten  off'  in 
a  stone  mortar,  or  by  passing  the  grain  through  a 
mill,  similar  to  our  corn-mills.     The  mode  of  culti- 
vating rice  in  any  part  of  the  world,  varies  but  little 
from  the  foregoing  process.     The  point  which  re- 
quires the  greatest  attention,  is  keeping  the  ground 
properly  covered  with  water. 

27.  Rice  was  introduced  into  the  Carolinas  in  1697, 
where  it  is  now  produced  in  greater  perfection  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  world.     The  seeds  are  drop- 
ped along,  from  the  small  end  of  a  gourd,  into  drills 
made  with  one  corner  of  the  hoe.     The  plants,  when 
partly  grown,  are  not  transferred  to  another  place,  as 
in  Asia,  but  are  suffered  to  grow  and  ripen  in  the 
original  drills.     The  crop  is  secured  like  wheat,  and 
the  husks  are  forced  from  the  grain  by  a  machine, 
which  leaves  the  kernels  more  perfect  than  the  meth- 
ods adopted  in  other  countries. 


THE     AGRICULTURIST.  21 

28.  Cotton  is  cultivated  in  the  East  and  West  In- 
dies,  North  and  South  America,  Egypt,  and  in  many 
other  parts  of  the  world,  where  the  climate  is  suffi- 
ciently warm  for  the  purpose.     There  are   several 
.species  of  this  plant ;  of  which  three  kinds  are  culti- 
vated in  the  southern  states  of  the  Union — thenankeen 
cotton,  the  green  seed  cotton,  and  the  black  seed,  or  sea 
island  cotton.     The  first  two,  which  grow  in  the  mid-- 
dle  and  upland  countries,  are  denominated  short  sta- 
ple cotton :  the  last  is  cultivated  in  the  lower  country, 
near  the  sea,  and  on  the  islands  near  the  main  land, 
and  is  of  a  fine  quality,  and  of  a  long  staple. 

29.  The  plants  are  propagated  annually  from  seeds, 
which  are  sown  very  thickly  in  ridges  made  with  the 
plough  or  hoe.     After  they  have  grown  to  the  height 
of  three  or  four  inches,  part  of  them  are  pulled  up, 
in  order  that  the  rest,  while  coming  to  maturity,  may 
stand  about  four  inches  apart.     It  is  hencefoi  th  man- 
aged, until  fully  grown,  like  Indian  corn. 

30.  The  cotton  is  inclosed  in  pods,  which  open  as 
fast  as  their  contents  become  fit  to  be  gathered.     In 
Georgia,  about  eighty  pounds  of  upland  cotton  can 
be  gathered  by  a  single  hand  in  a  day ;  but  in  Ala- 
bama and  Mississippi,  where  the  plant  thrives  better, 
two  hundred  pounds  are  frequently  collected  in  the 
same  time. 

31.  The  seeds  adhere  closely  to  the  cotton,  when 
picked  from  the  pods  ;  but  they  are  properly  separa- 
ted by  machines  called  gins  ;  of  which  there  are  two 
kinds, — the  rotter-gin,  and  the  saw-gin.     The  essen- 
tial parts  of  the  former  are  two  cylinders,  which  are 
placed  nearly  in  contact  with  each  other.     By  their 
revolving  motion,  the  cotton  is  drawn  between  them, 
while  the  size  of  the  seeds  prevents  their  passage. 
This  machine,  being  of  small  size,  is  worked  by  hand. 

32.  The  saw-gin  is  much  larger,  and  is  moved  by 
animal,  steam,  or  water  power.     It  consists  of  a  re. 


22  THE     AGRICULTURIST. 

ceiver,  having  one  side  covered  with  strong  wires, 
placed  in  a  parallel  direction  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  apart,  and  a  number  of  circular  saws,  which  re- 
volve on  a  common  axis.  The  saws  pass  between 
these  wires,  and  entangle  in  their  teeth  the  cotton, 
which  is  thereby  drawn  through  the  grating,  while 
the  seeds,  from  their  size,  are  forced  to  remain  on  the 
other  side. 

33.  Before  the  invention  of  the  saw-gin,  the  seeds 
were  separated  from  the  upland  cottons  by  hand, — a 
method  so  extremely  tedious,  that  their  cultivation 
was   attended  with  but  little  profit   to  the  planter. 
This  machine  was  invented  in  Georgia  by  Eli  Whit- 
ney, of  Massachusetts.     It  was  undertaken  at  the  re- 
quest of  several  planters  of  the  former  state,  and  was 
there  put  in  operation  in  1792. 

34.  In  the  preceding  year,  the  whole  crop  of  cot- 
ton in  the  United  States  was  only  sixty-four  bales ; 
but,  in  1834,  it  amounted  to  1,000,617.     The  vast  in- 
crease  in  the  production  of  this  article  has  arisen,  in 
part,  from  the  increased  demand  for  it  in  Europe,  and 
in  the  Northern  states,  but,  chiefly,  from  the  use  of 
the  invaluable  machine  just  mentioned. 

35.  Sugar-cane  was  cultivated  by  the  Chinese,  at 
a  very  early  period,  probably  two  thousand  years  be- 
fore it  was  known  in  Europe  ;  but  sugar,  in  a  candied 
form,  was  used  in  small  quantities  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  in  the  days  of  their  prosperity.     It  was  prob- 
ably brought  from  Bengal,  Siam,  or  some  of  the  East 
India  Islands,  as  it  is  supposed,  that  it  grew  nowhere 
else  at  that  time. 

36.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  soon  after  the  mer- 
chants of  the  West  began  to  traffic  in  Indian  articles 
of  commerce,  the  plant  was  introduced  into  Arabia 
Felix,  and  thence  into  Egypt,  Nubia,  Ethiopia,  and 
Morocco.     The  Spaniards  obtained  it  from  the  Moors, 
and,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  introduced  it  into  the 


THE     AGRICULTURIST.  23 

Canary  Islands.  It  was  brought  to  America,  and  to 
the  West  India  Islands,  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portu- 
guese. It  is  now  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  be- 
low the  thirty-first  degree  of  latitude,  and  in  the  warm 
parts  of  the  globe  generally. 

37.  Previous  to  the  year  1466,  sugar  was  known 
in  England  chiefly,  as  a  medicine  ;  and,  r  \though  the 
sugar-cane  was  cultivated,  at  that  time,  in  several  pla- 
ces on  the  Mediterranean,  it  was  not  more  extensive- 
ly used  on  the  continent.  Now,  in  extent  of  cultiva 
tion,  it  ranks  next  to  wheat  and  rice,  and  first  in  mar- 
itime commerce. 

88.  The  cultivators  of  sugar-cane  propagate  the 
plant  by  means  of  cuttings  from  the  lower  end  of  the 
stalks,  which  are  planted  in  the  spring  or  autumn,  in 
drills,  or  in  furrows.  The  new  plants  spring  from 
the  joints  of  the  cuttings,  and  are  fit  to  be  gathered 
for  use  in  eight,  ten,  twelve,  or  fourteen  months. 
While  growing,  sugar-cane  is  managed  much  like 
Indian  corn. 

39.  When  ripe,  the  cane  is  cut  and  brought  to  the 
sugar-mill,  where  the  juice!  is  expressed  between  iron 
or  stone  cylinders,  moved  by  steam,  water,  or  animal 
power.     The  juice  thus  obtained   is   evaporated    in 
large  boilers  to  a  syrup,  which  is  afterwards  removed 
to  coolers,  where  it  is  agitated  with  wooden  instru- 
ments called  stirrers.     To  accelerate  its  cooling,  it  is 
next  poured  into  casks,  and,  when  yet  warm,  is  con- 
veyed to  barrels,  placed  in  an  upright  position  over  a 
cistern,  and  pierced  in  the  bottom  in  several  places. 
The  holes  being  partially  stopped  with  canes,  the  part 
which    still   remains   in  the   form   of  syrup,    filters 
through  them  into  the  cistern  beneath,  while  the  rest 
is  left  in  the  form  of  sugar,  in  the  state  called  mus- 
covado. 

40.  This  sugar  is  of  a  yellow  colour,  being  yet  in 
a  crude,  or  raw  state.    It  is  further  purified  by  various 


24  THE     AGRICULTURIST. 

processes,  such  as  redissolving  it  in  water,  and  again 
boiling  it  with  lime  and  bullocks'  blood,  or  with  ani- 
mal charcoal,  and  passing  the  syrup*  through  several 
canvas  filters. 

41.  Loaf-sugar  is  manufactured  by  pouring  the 
syrup,  after  it  has  been  purified,  and  reduced  to  a 
certain  thickness  by  evaporation,  into  unglazed  earth- 
en vessels  of  a  conical  shape.     The  cones  have  a  hole 
at  their  apex,  through  which  may  filter  the  syrup 
which  separates  from  the  sugar  above.     Most  of  the 
sugar  is  imported  in  a  raw  or  crude  state,  and  is  af- 
terward refined  in  the  cities  in  sugar-houses. 

42.  Molasses  is  far  less  free  from  extraneous  sub- 
stances than  sugar,  as  it  is  nothing  more  than  the 
drainings  from  the  latter.     Rum  is  distilled  from  in- 
ferior molasses,  and  other  saccharine  matter  of  the 
cane,  which  will  answer  for  no  other  purpose. 

43.  Sugar  is  also  manufactured  from  the  sap  of  the 
sugar-maple,  in  considerable  quantities,  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  the  United  States,  and  in  t'ne  Canadas. 
The  sap  is  obtained  by  cutting  a  notch,  or  boring  a 
hole,  in  the  tree,  and  applying  a  spout  to  conduct  it 
to  a  receiver,  which  is  either  a  rude  trough,  or  a 
cheap  vessel  made  by  a  cooper.     This  operation  is 
performed  late  in  the  winter,  or  early  in  the  spring, 
when  the  weather  is  freezing  at  night,  and  thawing 
in  the  day. 

44.  The  liquid  in  which  the  saccharine  matter  is 
suspended,  is  evaporated  by  heat,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  juice  of  the  cane.     During  the  process  of  evapo- 
ration, slices  of  pork  are  kept  in  the  kettle,  to  prevent 
the  sap  or  syrup  from  boiling  over.. 

45.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  syrup,  of  a  cer- 
tain thickness,  has  been  obtained,  it  is  passed  through 
a  strainer,  and,  having  been  agaia  placed  over  the 
fire,  it  is  clarified  with  eggs  and  milk,  the  scum,  as 
it  rises,  being  carefully  removed  with  a  skimmer 


THE     AGRICULTURIST.  25 

When  sufficiently  reduced,  it  is  usually  poured  into 
tin  pans,  or  basins,  in  which,  as  it  cools,  it  consoli- 
dates into  hard  cakes  of  sugar. 

46.  Most  of  the  lands  in  a  state  of  nature,  are  cov- 
ered with  forest  trees.     This  is  especially  the  case  in 
North  America.      When  this  division  of  our  conti- 
nent was  first  visited  by  Europeans,  it  was  nearly  one 
vast  wilderness,  throughout  its  entire   extent;    and 
even  now,  after  a  lapse  of  three  centuries,  a  great 
portion  of  it  remains  in  the  same  condition.     The  in- 
dustrious settlers,  however,  are  rapidly  clearing  away 
the  natural  encumbrances  of  the  soil ;  and,  before  a 
similar  period  shall  have  passed  away,  we  may  ex- 
pect, that  civilized  men  will  have  occupied  every  por- 
tion of  this  vast  territory,  which  may  be  worthy  of 
cultivation. 

47.  The  mode  of  clearing  land,  as  it  is  termed,  va- 
ries in  different  parts  of  the  United  States.     In  Penn- 
sylvania, and  in  neighborhoods  settled  by  people  from 
that  state,  the  large  trees  are  deadened  by  girdling 
them,  and  the  small  ones,  together  with  the  under- 
brush, are  felled  and  burned.     This  mode  is  very  ob- 
jectionable, for  the  reason,  that  the  limbs  on  the  stand- 
ing trees,  when  they  have  become  rotten,  sometimes 
peril  the  lives  of  persons  and  animals  underneath.     It 
seems,  however,  that  those  who  pursue  this  method, 
prefer  risking  life  in  this  way  to  wearing  it  out  in 
wielding  the  axe,  and  in  rolling  logs. 

48.  A  very  different  plan  is  pursued  by  settlers  from 
New-England.      The  underbrush  is  first  cut  down, 
and  piled  in  heaps.     The  large  trees  are  then  felled, 
to  serve  as  foundations  for  log-heaps ;  and  the  small- 
er ones  are  cut  so  as  to  fall  as  nearly  parallel  to  these 
as  practicable.     The  smaller  trees,  as  well  as  the 
limbs  of  the  larger  ones,  are  cut  into  lengths  of  twelve 
or  fifteen  feet. 

49.  At  a  proper  season  of  the  year,  when  the  brush 

C 


26  THE     AGRICULTURIST. 

has  become  dry  enough,  fire  is  applied,  which  con- 
sumes  much  of  the  small  stuff.  The  logs  are  next 
hauled  together  with  oxen  or  horses,  and  rolled  into 
heaps  with  handspikes.  The  small  stuff  which  haa 
escaped  the  first  burning,  is  thrown  upon  the  heaps, 
and,  fire  being  applied,  the  whole  is  consumed  to- 
gether. 

50.  In  the  Northern,  Middle,  and  Western  states, 
where  a  great  proportion  of  the  timber  is  beech,  ma- 
ple, and  elm,  great  quantities  of  ashes  are  obtained 
in  this  mode  of  clearing  land.     From  these  ashes  are 
extracted  the  pot  and  pearl  ashes  of  commerce,  which 
have  been,  and  which  still  are,  among  the  principal 
exports  of  the  United  States. 

51.  The  usual  process  of  making  potash  is  as  fol- 
lows :   the  crude  ashes   are   put  into  large  tubs,  or 
leeches,  with  a  small  quantity  of  salt  and  lime.     The 
strength,  of  .this  mixture  is  extracted  by  pouring  upon 
it  hot  water,  which  passes  through  it  into  a  reservoir. 
The  water  thus  saturated  is  called  black  ley,  which 
is  evaporated  in  large  kettles.     The  residuum  is  call- 
ed black  salts,  which  are  converted  into  potash  by 
applying  to  the  kettle  an  intense  heat. 

52.  The  process  of  making  pearlash  is  the  same, 
until  the  ley  has  been  reduced  to  black  salts,  except 
that  no  lime  or  salt  is  used.     The  salts  are  baked  in 
large  ovens,  heated  by  a  blazing  fire,  which  proceeds 
from  an  arch  below.     Having  been  thus  scorched,  the 
salts  are  dissolved  in  hot  water.     The  solution  is  al- 
lowed to  be  at  rest,  until  all  extraneous  substances 
have  settled  to  the  bottom,  when  it  is  drawn  off  and 
evaporated  as  before.     The  residuum  is  called  white 
salts.     Another  baking,  like  the  former,  completes 
the  process. 

53.  Very  few  of  the  settlers  have  an  ashery,  as  it 
is  called,  in  which  the  whole  process  of  making  either 
pot  or  pearl  ash  is  performed.     They  usually  sell  the 


THE     AGRICULTURIST.  27 

black  salts  to  the  store-keepers  in  their  neighborhood, 
who  complete  the  process  of  the  manufacture. 

54.  The  trade  in  ashes  is  often  profitable  to  the 
settlers  ;  some  of  them  even  pay,  in  this  way,  the 
whole  expense  of  clearing  their  land.  Pot  and  pearl 
ashes  are  packed  in  strong  barrels,  and  sent  to  the 
cities,  where,  previous  to  sale,  they  are  inspected, 
and  branded  according  to  their  quality. 


THE    HORTICULTURIST. 

1.  THE  Creator  of  the  Universe,  having  formed 
man  from  the  dust  of  the  ground,  provided  a  mag- 
nificent  garden  for  his  residence,  and  commanded  him 
"  to  dress  it  and  to  keep  it :"  but,  having  transgressed 
the  commandment  of  his  lawful  Sovereign,  he  was 
driven  from  this  delightful  paradise,  thenceforth  to 
gain  a  subsistence   from  the  earth  at  large,  which 
had  been  cursed  with  barrenness,  thorns,  thistles,  and 
briars. 

2.  Scripture  does  not  inform  us,  that  Adam  turned 
his  attention  to  gardening ;  nor  have  we  any  means 
of  determining  the  state  of  this  art,  in  the  centuries 
previous  to  the  flood  ;   but  it  is  highly  probable,  that 
it  had  arrived  to  considerable  perfection,  before  the 
advent  of  this  destructive  visitation  from  Heaven. 


THE     HORTICULTURIST.  29 

3.  Gardens,  for   useful   purposes,  were  probably 
made,  soon  after  the  waters  had  subsided  ;  and  the 
statement  in  Scripture,  that  "  Noah  planted  a  vine- 
yard," may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  evidence  suffi- 
cient to  establish  it  as  a  fact.     If  this  were  the  case, 
the  art,  doubtless,  continued  progressive  among  those 
descendants  of  Noah,  who  did  not  sink  into  a  state  of 
barbarism,  after  the  confusion  of  tongues. 

4.  Among  savage  nations,  one  of  the  first  indica- 
tions of  advancement  towards  a  state  of  civilization, 
is  the  cultivation  of  a  little  spot  of  ground  for  raising 
vegetables  ;  and  the  degree  of  refinement  among  the 
inhabitants  of  any  country,  may  be  determined,  with 
tolerable  certainty,  by  the  taste  and  skill  exhibited 
in  their  gardens. 

5.  Ornamental  gardening  is  never  attended  to,  in 
any  country,  until  the  arts  in  general  have  advanced 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  perfection ;  and  it  uni- 
formly declines  with  other  fine  or  ornamental  arts. 
Accordingly,  we  do  not  read  of  splendid  gardens 
among  the  Babylonians,  Egyptians,  Jews,  Greeks,  Ro- 
mans, and  other  nations  of  antiquity,  until  they  had 
reached  an  exalted  state  of  refinement ;   and  when 
these  nations  descended  from  this  condition,  or  were 
overthrown  by  barbarians,  this  art  declined  or  dis- 
appeared. 

6.  During  the  period  of  mental  darkness,  which 
prevailed  between  the  eighth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
the  practice  of  ornamental  gardening  had  fallen  into 
such  general  disuse,  that  it  was  confined  exclusively 
to  the  monks.     After  this  period,  it  began  again  to 
spread  among  the  people  generally.     It  revived  in 
Italy,  Germany,  Holland,  and  France,  long  before  any 
attention  was  paid  to  it  in  England. 

7.  In  the  latter  country,  but  few  culinary  vegeta- 
bles were  consumed  before  the  beginning  of  the  six. 
teenth  century,  and  most  of  these  were  brought  from 


30  THE     HORTICULTURIST. 

Holland ;  nor  was  gardening  introduced  there,  us  a 
source  of  profit,  until  about  one  hundred  years  af- 
ter that  period.  Peaches,  pears,  plums,  nectarines, 
apricots,  grapes,  cherries,  strawberries,  and  melons, 
were  luxuries  but  little  enjoyed  in  England,  until  near 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first  hot 
and  ice  houses  known  on  the  island,  were  built  by 
Charles  II.,  who  ascended  the  British  throne  in  1660, 
and  soon  after  introduced  French  gardening  at  Hamp. 
ton  Court,  Carlton,  and  Marlborough. 

8.  About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
this  art  attracted  the  attention  of  some  of  the  first 
characters  in  Great  Britain,  who  gave  it  a  new  im- 
pulse in  that  country.     But  the  style  which  they  im- 
itated was  objectionable,  inasmuch  as  the  mode  of 
laying  out  the  gardens,  and  of  planting  and  trimming 
the  trees,  was  too  formal  and  fantastical. 

9.  Several  eminent  writers,  among   whom  were 
Pope  and  Addison,  ridiculed  this  Dutch  mode  of  gar- 
dening, as  it  was  called,  and  endeavoured  to  introduce 
another,  more  consistent  with  genuine  taste.     Their 
views  were,  at  length,  seconded  by  practical  horticul- 
turists ;  and  those  principles  of  the  art  which  they 
advocated,  were  adopted  in  every  part  of  Great  Brit 
ain.     The  English  mode  has  been  followed  and  emu 
lated  by  the  refined  nations  of  the  Eastern  continent 
and  by  many  opulent  individuals  in  the  United  States 

10.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
horticultural  societies  have  been  formed  in   everj* 
kingdom  of  Europe.     In  Great  Britain  alone,  there 
are  no  less  than  fifty ;  and,  it  is  satisfactory  to  add, 
that  there  are  also  several  of  these  institutions  in  the 
United  States.     The  objects  of  the  persons  who  com- 
pose these  societies  are,  to  collect  and  disseminate  in- 
formation on  this  interesting  art,  especially  in  regard 
to  the  introduction  of  new  and  valuable  articles  of 
cultivation. 


THE     HORTICULTURIST.  31 

11.  The  authors  who  have  written  upon  scientific 
and  practical  gardening,  at  different  periods,  and  in 
different  countries,  are  very  numerous.     Among  the 
ancient  Greek  writers,  were  Hesiod,  Theophrastus, 
Xenophon,  and  JElian.     Among  the  Latins,  Varo  was 
the  first  ;  to  whom  succeeded,  Cato,  PJiny  the  elder, 
Columella,  and  Palladius. 

12.  Since  the  revival  of  literature,  horticulture,  in 
common  with  agriculture,  has  shared  largely  in  the 
labours  of  the  learned  ;  and  many  works,  on  this  im- 
portant branch  of  rural  economy,  have  been  publish, 
ed  in  every  language  of  Europe.     But  the  publica- 
tions on  this  subject,  which  attract  the  greatest  at- 
tention, are  the  periodicals  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  great  horticultural  societies.     Those  of  Lon- 
don and  Paris,  are  particularly  distinguished. 

13.  It  is  impossible  to  draw  a  distinct  line  between 
horticulture  and  agriculture ;  since  so  many  articles 
of  cultivation  are  common  to  both,  and  since  a  well- 
regulated  farm  approaches  very  nearly  to  a  garden. 

14.  The  divisions  of  a  complete  garden,  usually 
adopted  by  writers  on  this 'subject,' are  the  following: 
1st.  the  culinary  garden  ;  2d.  the  flower  garden  ;  3d. 
the  orchard,  embracing  different  kinds  of  fruits  ;  4th. 
the  vineyard  ;  5th.  the  seminary,  for  raising  seeds  ; 
6th.  the  nursery,  for  raising  trees  to  be  transplanted  ; 
7th.  the  botanical  garden,  for  raising  various  kinds 
of  plants ;  8th.  the  arboretum  of  ornamental  trees  ; 
and,  9th.  the  picturesque,  or  landscape  garden.     To 
become  skilful  in  the  management  of  even  one  or  two 
of  these  branches,  requires  much  attention  ;   but  to 
become  proficient  in  all,  would  require  years  of  the 
closest  application. 

15.  In  Europe,  the  professed  gardeners  constitute 
a  large  class  of  the  population.     They  are  employed 
either  in  their  own  gardens,  or  in  those  of  the  wealthy, 
who  engage  them  by  the  day  or  year.     There  are 


32  THE     HORTICULTURIST. 

many  in  this  country  who  devote  their  attention  to 
this  business  ;  but  they  are  chiefly  from  the  other  sido 
of  the  Atlantic.  In  our  Southern  states,  the  rich  as- 
sign  one  of  their  slaves  to  the  garden. 

16.  In  the  United  States,  almost  every  family  m 
the  country,  and  in  the  villages,  has  its  garden  for 
the  production  of  vegetables,  in  which  are  also  usu- 
ally reared,  a  few  flowers,  ornamental  shrubs,  and 
fruit-trees :    but  horticulture,  as  a  science,    is  stud- 
ied and  practised  here  by  very  few,  especially  that 
branch  of  it  called  picturesque,  or  landscape.     To 
produce  a  pleasing-  effect,  in  a  garden  of  this  kind, 
from  twenty  to  one  hundred  acres  are  necessary,  ac- 
cording to  the  manner  in  which  the  ground  may  be 
situated.     In  an  area  of  that  extent,  every  branch  of 
this  pleasing  art  can  be  advantageously  embraced. 

17.  Delicate  exotic  plants,  which  will  not  bear  ex- 
posure  to  the  open  air  during  the  winter,  are  pre- 
served from   the  effects  of  the  cold   in  hot  or  green 
houses,  which  may  be  warmed  by  artificial  heat.     A 
hot-house  is  exhibited  in  the  representation  of  a  gar- 
den,  at  the  head  of  this  article.     It  is  composed  chief- 
ly of  window-glass  set  in  sashes  of  wood.     A  green- 
house is  usually  larger  ;  and  is  designed  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  those  plants  requiring  less  heat. 

18.  The  vegetables  commonly  cultivated  in  gar- 
dens for  the   table,  are, — corn,   potatoes,  tomatoes, 
peas,  beans,  squashes,  cucumbers,  melons,  strawber- 
ries, raspberries,  blackberries,  gooseberries,  currants, 
beets,  parsnips,  carrots,  onions,  radishes,  cabbages, 
asparagus,  lettuce,  grapes,  and  various  kinds  of  fruits. 
The  flowers,  ornamental  shrubs,  and  trees,  are  very 
numerous,  and  are  becoming  more  so  by  accessions 
from  the  forests,  and  from  foreign  countries. 

19.  Tiie  scientific  horticulturist,  in  laying  off  his 
garden,  endeavours  to  unite  beauty  and  utility,  loca- 
ting the  flowers,  ornamental  shrubs,  and  trees,  where 


THE     HORTICULTURIST.  33 

they  will  be  most  conspicuous,  and  those  vegetables 
less  pleasing  to  the  eye,  in  more  retired  situations, 
yet,  in  a  soil  and  exposure  tdapted  to  their  con- 
stitution.  In  improving  the  soil  of  his  garden,  he 
brings  to  his  aid  the  science  of  chemistry,  together 
with  the  experience  of  practical  men.  He  is  also 
careful  in  the  choice  of  his  fruit-trees,  and  in  in- 
creasing the  variety  of  their  products  by  engrafting 
and  by  inoculation. 


THE    MILLER. 

1.  THE  Miller  belongs  to  that  class  of  employ, 
ments  which  relates  to  the  preparation  of  food  and 
drinks  for  man.     His  business  consists,  chiefly,  in  re- 
ducing the  farinaceous  grains  to  a  suitable  degree  of 
fineness. 

2.  The  simplest  method  by  which  grain  can  be  re- 
duced  to  meal,  or  flour,  is  rubbing  or  pounding  it  be- 
tween two  stones  ;    and  this  was  probably  the  one 
first  practised  in  all  primitive  conditions  of  societys 
as  it  is  still  pursued  among  some  tribes  of  uncivil- 
ized men. 

3.  The  first  machine  for  comminuting  grain,  of 
which  we  have  any  knowledge,  was  a  simple  hand- 
mill,  composed  of  a  nether  stone  fixed  in  a  horizontal 
position,  and  an  upper  stone,  which  was  put  in  motion 


THE     MILLER. 


35 


with  the  hand  by  means  of  a  peg.  This  simple  con. 
trivance  is  still  used  in  India,  as  well  as  in  some  se- 
questered  parts  of  Scotland,  and  on  many  of  the  plan- 
tations  in  the  Southern  states  of  our  Union.  But,  in 
general,  where  large  quantities  of  grain  are  to  be 
ground,  it  has  been  entirely  superseded  by  mills  not 
moved  by  manual  power. 

4.  The  modern  corn  and  flour  mill  differs  from  the 
primitive  hand-mill  in  the  size  of  the  stones,  in  the  ad- 
dition  of  an  apparatus  for  separating  the  hulls  and 
bran  from  the  farinaceous  part  of  the  grain,  and  in 
the  power  applied  for  putting  it  in  motion. 

5.  The  grinding  surfaces  of  the  stones  have  chan- 
nels, or  furrows,  cut  in  them,  which  proceed  oblique- 
ly from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.     The  fur- 
rows are  cut  slantwise  on  one  side,  and  perpendicu- 
lar on  the  other ;  so  that  each  of  the  ridges  which 
they  form,  has  a  sharp  edge  ;  and,  when  the  upper 
stone  is  in  motion,  these  edges  pass  one  another,  like 
the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  cut  the  grain  the 
more  easily,  as  it  falls  upon  the  furrows. 

6.  By  a  careful  inspection  of  the  following  picture, 
the  whole  machinery  of  a  common  mill  may  be  un- 
derstood. 


36  THE     MILLER. 

A  represents  the  water-wheel ;  B,  the  shaft  to  which 
is  attached  the  cog-wheel  C,  which  acts  on  the  trun- 
dle-head,  D  ;  and  this,  in  turn,  acts  on  the  moveable 
stone.  The  spindle,  trundle-head,  and  upper  stone, 
all  rest  entirely  on  the  beam,  F,  which  can  be  eleva- 
ted or  depressed,  at  pleasure,  by  a  simple  apparatus  ; 
so  that  the  distance  between  the  stones  can  be  easil) 
regulated,  to  grind  either  fine  or  coarse.  The  grain 
about  to  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  mill,  is 
thrown  into  the  hopper,  H,  whence  it  passes  by  the 
shoe,  or  spout  I,  through  a  hole  in  the  upper  stone, 
and  then  between  them  both. 

7.  The  upper  stone  is  a  little  convex,  and  the  other 
a  little  concave.     There  is  a  little  difference,  how- 
ever, between  the  convexity  and  the  concavity  of  the 
two  stones :  this  difference  causes  the  space  between 
them  to  become  less  and  less  towards  their  edges ; 
and  the  grain,  being  admitted  between  them,  is,  con- 
sequently, ground  finer  and  finer,  as  it  passes  out  in 
that  direction,  in  which  it  is  impelled  by  the  centrifu- 
gal power  of  the  moving  stone. 

8.  If  the  flour,  or  meal,  is  not  to  be  separated  from 
the  bran,  the  simple  grinding  completes  the  opera- 
tion ;  but,  when  this  separation  is  to  be  made,  the 
comminuted  grain,  as  it  is  thrown  out  from  between 
the  stones,  is  carried,  by  little  leathern  buckets  fas- 
tened to  a  strap,  to  the  upper  end  of  an  octagonal 
sieve,  placed  in  an  inclined  position  in  a  large  box. 
The  coarse  bran  passes  out  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
sieve,  or  bolt,  and  the  flour,  or  fine  particles  of  bran, 
through  the  bolting-cloth,  at  different  places,  accord- 
ing to  their  fineness.     At  the  head  of  the  bolt,  the 
superfine  flour  passes ;  in  the  middle,  the  fine  flour ; 
and  at  the  lower  end,  the  coarse  flour  and  fine  bran  ; 
which,  when  mixed,  is  called  caneL  or  shorts. 

9.  The  best   matreial   of  which   mill-stones  are 
made,  is  the  burr-stone,  which  is  brought  from  France 


1  II  E     M  I  L  L  ti  R.  '37 

i ;  srnull  pieces,  weighing  from  ten  to  one  bundled 
pounds.  These  are  cemented  together  with  plaster 
of  Paris,  and  closely  bound  around  the  circumfer- 
ence with  hoops  made  of  bar  iron.  For  grinding 
corn  or  rye,  those  made  of  sienite,  or  granite  rock, 
are  frequently  used. 

10.  A  mill,  exclusively  employed  in  grinding  grain, 
consumed  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  neighborhood,  is 
called  a  grist  or  custom  mill ;  and  a  portion  of  the 
grist  is  allowed  to  the  miller,  in  payment  for  his  ser- 
vices.    The  proportion  is  regulated  by  law  ;  and,  in 
our  own  country,  it  varies  according  to  the  legisla- 
tion of  the  different  states. 

11.  Mills  in  which  flour  is  manufactured,  and  pack- 
ed in  barrels  for  sale,  are  called  merchant  mills. 
Here,  the  wheat  is  purchased  by  the  miller,  or  by  the 
owner  of  the  mill,  who  relies  upon  the  difference  be- 
tween the  original  cost  of  the  grain,  and  the  probable 
amount  of  its  several  products,  when  sold,  to  remu- 
nerate him  for  the  manufacture,  and  his  investments 
of  capital.     In  Virginia,  and,  perhaps,  in  some  of  the 
other  states,  it  is  a  common  practice   among   the 
farmers,  to  deliver  to   the  millers  their  wheat,  for 
which  they  receive  a  specified  quantity  of  flour. 

12.  The  power  most  commonly  employed  to  put 
heavy  machinery  in  operation,  is   that  supplied   by 
water.     This  is  especially  the  case  with  regard  to 
mills  for  grinding  grain  ;  but,  when  this  cannot  be 
had,  a  substitute  is  found  in  steam,  or  animal  strength. 
The  wind  is   also  rendered  subservient  to  ..this  pur- 
pose.    The  wind-mill  was  invented  in  the  time  of 
Augustus  Caesar.     During  the  reign  of  this  emperor, 
and  probably  long  before,  mules  and  asses  were  em- 
ployed  by  both  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  turning 
their  mills.     The  period  at  which  water-mills  began 
to  be  used  cannot  be  certainly  determined.     Some 
writers  place  it  as  fo~  ' — *k  as  the  Chiistian  era. 


38  THEMILLER. 

13.  Wheat  flour  is  one  of  the  staple  commodities 
of  the  United  States,  and  there  are  mills  for  its  man- 
ufacture in  almost  every  part  of  the  country,  where 
wheat   is  extensively  cultivated  ;  but  our  most  cele- 
brated flour-mills  are  on  the  Brandywine  Creek,  Del., 
at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Richmond,  Va. 

14.  In  our  Southern  states,  hommony  is  a  favor- 
ite  article  of  food.     It  consists  of  the  flinty  portions 
of  Indian  corn,  which  have  been  separated  from  the 
hulls  and  eyes  of  the  grain.     To  effect  this  separa- 
tion, the  corn  is  sometimes  ground  very  coarsely  in 
a  mill ;  but  the  most  usual  method  is  that  of  pound- 
ing  it  in  a  mortar. 

15.  The  mortar  is  excavated  from  a  log  of  hard 
wood,  between  twelve  and  eighteen  inches  in  diam- 
eter.    The  form  of  the  excavation  is  similar  to  that 
of  a  common  iron  mortar,  except  that  it  is  less  flat 
at  the  bottom,  to  prevent  the  corn  from  being  reduced 
to  meal  during  the  operation.     The  pestle  is  usually 
made  by  confining  an  iron  wedge  in  the  split  end  of 
a  round  stick,  by  means  of  an  iron  ring. 

16.  The  white  flint  corn  is  the  kind  usually  chosen 
for  hommony  ;  although  any  kind,  possessing  the  re- 
quisite solidity,  will  do.     Having  been  poured  into 
the  mortar,  it  is  moistened  with  hot  water,  and  im- 
mediately beaten  with  the  pestle,  until  the  eyes  and 
hulls  are  forced  from  the  flinty  portions  of  the  grain 
The  part  of  the  corn  which  has  been  reduced  to  mea» 
by  the  foregoing  proeess,  i9  removed  by  means  of  a. 
sieve,  and  the  hulls,  by  the  aid  of  the  wind. 

17.  Hommony  is  prepared  for  the  table  by  boiling 
it  in  water  for  twelve  hours  with  about  one  fourth  of 
its  quantity  of  white  beans,  and  some  fat  bacon.     Il 
is  eaten  while  yet  warm,  with  milk  or  butter  ;  or,  if 
suffered  to  get  cold,  is  again  wa-vned  with  lard  01 
some  other  fat  substance,  before  it  vs  brought  to  /.he 
table. 


THE   BAKER. 

1.  THE  business  of  the  Baker  consists  in  making 
bread,  rolls,  biscuits,  and  crackers,  and  in  baking  va- 
rious kinds  of  provisions. 

2.  Man  appears  to  be  designed  by  nature,  to  eat 
all  substances  capable  of  affording  nourishment  to  his 
system ;  but,  being  more  inclined  to  vegetable  than 
to  animal  food,  he  has,  from  the  earliest  times,  used 
farinaceous  grains,  as  his  principal  means  of  suste- 
nance.    As  these,  however,  cannot  be  eaten  in  their 
native  state  without  difficulty,  means  have  been  con- 
trived for  extracting  their  farinaceous  part,  and  for 
converting  it  into  an  agreeable  and  wholesome  ali- 
ment. 

3.  Those  who  are  accustomed  to  enjoy  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  most  useful  inventions,  without  re- 


40  THEBAKER. 

fleeting  on  the  labour  expended  in  their  completion, 
may  fancy  that  there  is  nothing  more  easy  than  to 
grind  grain,  to  make  "it  into  paste,  and  to  bake  it  in 
an  oven ;  but  it  must  have  been  a  long  time,  before 
men  discovered  any  better  method  of  preparing  their 
grain,  than  roasting  it  in  the  fire,  or  boiling  it  in  wa- 
ter, and  forming  it  into  viscous  cakes.  Accident, 
probably,  at  length  furnished  some  observing  person 
a  hint,  by  which  good  and  wholesome  bread  could  be 
made  by  means  of  fermentation. 

4.  Before  the  invention  of  the  oven,  bread  was  ex- 
clusively  baked  in  the  embers,  or  ashes,  or  before  the 
fire.     These  methods,  with  sometimes  a  little  varia- 
tion, are  still  practised,  more  or  less,  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.     In  England,  the  poor  class  of  people  place 
the  loaf  on  the  heated  hearth,  and  invert  over  it  an 
iron  pot  or  kettle,  which  they  surround  with  embers 
or  coals. 

5.  The  invention  of  the  oven  must  have  added  much 
to  the  conveniences  and   comforts  of  the  ancients  ; 
but  it  cannot  be  determined,  at  what  period,  or  by 
whom,  it  was  contrived.     During  that  period  of  re- 
mote  antiquity,  in  which  the  people  were  generally 
erratic  in  their  habits,  the  ovens  were  made  of  clay, 
and  hardened  by  fire,  like  earthenware ;  and,  being 
small,  they  could  be  easily  transported  from  place  to 
place,  like  our  iron  bake-ovens.     Such-  ovens  are  still 
in  use  in  some  parts  of  Asia. 

6.  There  are  few  nations  that  do  not  use  bread,  or 
a  substitute  for  it.     Its  general  use  arises  from  a  law 
of  our  economy,  which  requires  a  mixture  of  the  an- 
imal fluids,  in  every  stage  of  the  process  of  digestion. 
The  saliva  is,  therefore,  essential ;  and  the  mastica- 
tion of  dry  food  is  required,  to  bring  it  forth  from  the 
glands  of  the  mouth. 

7.  The  farinaceous  grains  most  usually  employed 
in  making  bread,  are, — wheat,  rye,  barley,  maize,  and 


THE     BAKER.  41 

.  oats.  The  flour  or  meal  of  two  of  these  are  often 
mixed  ;  and  wheat  flour  is  sometimes  advantageously 
combined  with  rice,  peas,  beans,  or  potatoes. 

8.  The  component  parts  of  wheat,  rye,  and  barley 
flour,  are, — fecula,  or  starch,  gluten,  and  saccharine 
mucilage.     Fecula  is  the  most  nutritive  part  of  grain. 
It  is  found  in  all  seeds,  and  is  especially  abundant  in 
the  potato.     Gluten  is  necessary  to  the  production  of 
light  bread ;    and   wheat  flour,  containing  it   in  the 
greatest  proportion,  answers  the  purpose  better  than 
any  other.     The  saccharine  mucilage  is  equally  ne- 
cessary, as  this  is  the  substance  on  which  yeast  and 
leaven  act,  in  producing  the  internal  commotion  in 
the  particles  of  dough  during  fermentation. 

9.  There  are  three   general   methods   of  making 
bread ;   1st.  by  mixing  meal  or  flour  with  water,  or 
with  water  and  milk ;  2d.  by  adding  to  the  foregoing 
materials  a  small  quantity  of  sour  dough,  or  leaven, 
to  serve  as  a  fermenting  agent ;  and,  3d.  by  using 
yeast,  to  produce  the  same  general  effect. 

10.  The  theory  of  making  light  bread,  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  be  understood.     The  leaven  or  yeast  acts  upon 
the  saccharine  mucilage  of  the  dough,  and,  by  the  aid 
of  heat  and  moisture,  disengages  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter, which,  uniting  with  oxygen,  forms  carbonic  acid 
gas.     This,  being  prevented  from  escaping  by   the 
gluten  of  the  dough,  causes  the  mass  to  become  light 
and  spongy.     During  the  process  of  baking,  the  in- 
creased heat  disengages  more  of  the  fixed  air,  which 
is  further  prevented  from  escaping  by  the  formation, 
of  the  crust.     The  superfluous  moisture  having  been 
expelled,  the  substance  becomes  firm,  and  retains  that 
spongy  hollowness  which  distinguishes  good  bread. 

11.  Many  other  substances  contain  fermenting  qual 
ities,  and  are,  therefore,  sometimes  used  as  substi- 
tutes for  yeast  and  leaven.     The  waters  of  several 
mineral  springs,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  being 

D 


42  THEBAKER. 

impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  occasionally 
employed  in  making  light  bread. 

12.  The  three  general  methods  of  making  bread, 
and  the  great  number  of  materials  employed,  admit 
of  a  great  variety  in  this  essential  article  of  food  ; 
so  much  so,  that  we  cannot  enter  into  details,  as  re- 
gards  the  particular  modes  of  manufacture  adopted 
by  different  nations,  or  people.     There  are,  compar- 
atively, but  few  people  on  the  globe,  among  whom 
this  art  is  not  practised  in  some  way  or  other. 

13.  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain,  at  what  period  of 
time  the  process  of  baking  bread  became  a  particular 
profession.     It  is  supposed,  that  the  first  bakers  in 
Rome  came  from  Greece,  about  two  hundred  years 
before  the  Christian  era ;    and   that  these,  together 
with  some  freemen  of  the  city,  were  incorporated 
into  a  college,  or  company,  from  which  neither  they 
nor  their  children  were  permitted  to  withdraw.    They 
held  their  effects  in  common,  without  possessing  any 
individual  power  of  parting  with  them. 

14.  Each  bake-house  had  a  patron,  or  superintend- 
ent ;  and  one  of  the  patrons  had  the  management  of 
the  rest,  and  the  care  of  the  college.     So  respectable 
was  this  class  of  men  in  Rome,  that  one  of  the  body 
was  occasionally  admitted,  as  a  member  of  the  sen- 
ate ;  and  all,  on  account  of  their  peculiar  corporate 
association,  and  the  public  utility  of  their  employ, 
ment,  were  exempted  from  the  performance  of  the 
civil  duties  to  which  other  citizens  were  liable. 

15.  In  many  of  the  large  cities  of  Europe,  the 
price  and  weight  of  bread  sold  by  bakers,  are  regu- 
lated by  law.     The  weight  of  the  loaves  of  different 
sizes  must  be  always  the  same ;  but  the  price  may 
vary,  according  to  the  current  cost  of  the  chief  ma- 
terials.    The  law  was  such  in  the  city  of  London,  a 
few  years  ago,  that  if  a  loaf  fell  short  in  weight  a 
single  ounce,  the  baker  was  liable  to  be  put  in  the 


T  II  E      B  A  K  E  R.  43 

pillory ;  but  now,  he  is  subject  only  to  a  fine,  varying 
from  one  to  five  shillings,  according  to  the  will  of  the 
magistrate  before  whom  he  may  be  indicted. 

16.  In  this  country,  laws  of  a  character  somewhat 
similar  have  been  enacted  by  the  legislatures  of  sev- 
eral states,  and  by  city  authorities,  with  a  view  to  pro- 
tect the  community  against  impositions  ;  but  whether 
there  is  a  law  or  not,  the  bakers  regulate  the  weight, 
price,  and  quality  of  their  loaves  by  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  trade. 

17.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  business  more  laborious 
than  that  of  the  baker  of  loaf  bread,  who  has  a  regu- 
lar set  of  customers  to  be  supplied  every  morning. 
The  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day  are  systematically 
appropriated  to  the  performance  of  certain  labours, 
and  to  rest. 

18.  After  breakfast,  the  yeast  is  prepared,  and  the 
oven-wood  provided :    at  two  or  three   o'clock,  the 
sponge  is  set :  the  hours  from  three  to  eight  or  nine 
o'clock,  are  appropriated  to  rest.     The  baking  com- 
mences at  nine  or  ten  o'clock  at  night ;  and,  in  large 
bakeries,  continues  until  five  o'clock  in  the  morning. 
From  that  time  until  the  breakfast  hour,  the  hands 
are  engaged  in  distributing  the  bread  to  customers. 
For  seven  months  in  the  year,  and,  in  some  cases,  du- 
ring  the  whole  of  it,  part  of  the  hands  are  employed, 
from  eleven  to  one  o'clock,  in  baking  pies,  puddings, 
and  different  kinds  of  meats,  sent  to  them  from  neigh- 
boring families. 

19.  In  large  cities,  the  bakers  usually  confine  their 
attention  to  particular  branches  of  the  business.     Some 
bake  light  loaf  bread  only  ;  others  bake  unleavened 
bread,  such   as  crackers,  sea-biscuit,  and  cakes  for 
people  of  the  Jewish  faith.     Some,  again,  unite  sev- 
eral branches  together ;    and  this  is  especially  the 
case  in  small  cities  and  towns,  where  the  demand  for 
different  kinds  of  bread  is  more  limited. 


THE    CONFECTIONER. 

1.  THE  Confectioner  makes  liquid  and  dry  con- 
fects,  jellies,  marmalades,  pastes,  conserves,   sugar- 
plums, ice-creams,  candies,  and  cakes  of  various  kinds. 

2.  Many  of  the  articles  just  enumerated,  are  pre- 
pared in  families  for  domestic  use  ;  but,  as  their  prep- 
aration  requires  skill  and  practice,  and  is  likewise  at- 
tended  with  some  trouble,  it  is  sometimes  better  to 
purchase  them  of  the  confectioner. 

3.  Liquid  and  dry  confects  are  preserves  made  of 
various  kinds  of  fruits  and  berries,  the  principal  of 
which  are, — peaches,  apricots,  pears,  quinces,  apples, 
plums,  cherries,  grapes,  strawberries,  gooseberries, 
currants,  and  raspberries.      The  fruit,  of  whatever 
kind  it  may  be,  is  confected  by  boiling  it  in  a  thick 
clarified  syrup  of  sugar,  until  it  is  about  half  cooked. 


THE     CONFECTIONER.  45 

Dry  confects  arc  made  by  boiling  the  fruit  a  little  in 
syrup,  and  then  drying  it  with  a  moderate  heat  in  an 
oven.  The  ancients  conf'ected  with  honey  ;  but,  at 
present,  sugar  is  deemed  more  suitable  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  is  almost  exclusively  employed. 

4.  Jellies  resemble  a  thin  transparent  glue,  or  size. 
They  are  made  by  mixing  the  juice  of  the  fruits  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  paragraph,  with  a  due  propor- 
tion of  sugar,  and  then  boiling  the  composition  down 
to  a  proper  consistence.     Jellies  are  also  made  of  the 
flesh  of  animals  ;    but  such  preparations  cannot  be 
long  kept,  as  they  soon  become  corrupt. 

5.  Marmalades  are  thin  pastes,  usually  made  of 
the  pulp  of  fruits  that  have  some  consistence,  and 
about  an  equal  weight  of  sugar.      Pastes  are  similar 
to  marmalades,  in  their  materials,  and  mode  of  prep- 
aration.    The  difference  consists  only  in  their  being 
reduced  by  evaporation  to  a  consistence,  which  ren- 
ders them  capable  of  retaining  a  form,  when  put  into 
moulds,  and  dried  in  an  oven. 

6.  Conserves  are  a  species  of  dry  confects,  com- 
pounded  of  sugar  and  flowers.     The  flowers  usually 
employed,  are,  —  roses,   mallows,  rosemary,  orange, 
violets,  jessamine,  pistachoes,  citrons,  and  sloes.     Or- 
ange-peel  is  also  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

7.  Candies  are  made  of  clarified   sugar,  reduced 
by  evaporation  to  a  suitable  degree  of  consistence. 
They  receive  their  name  from   the  essence,  or  sub- 
stance,  employed  in  giving  them  the  required  flavour. 

8.  Sugar-plums  are  small  fruits,  seeds,  little  pieces 
of  bark,  or  odoriferous  and  aromatic  roots,  incrusted 
with  hard  sugar.     These  trifles  are  variously  denom- 
inated ;  but,  in  most  cases,  according  to  the  name  of 
the  substance  inclosed  by  the  incrustation. 

9.  Ice- cream  is  an  article  of  agreeable  refreshment 
in  hot  weather.     It  is  sold  in  confectionary  shops,  as 
well  as  at  the  public  gardens,  and  other  places  of  tern- 


46  THE     CONFECTIONER. 

porary  resort  in  cities.  It  is  composed,  chiefly,  of 
milk  or  cream,  fruit,  and  lemon-juice.  It  is  prepared 
by  beating  the  materials  well  together,  and  rubbing 
them  through  a  fine  hair  sieve.  The  congelation  is 
effected  by  placing  the  containing  vessel  in  one  which 
is  somewhat  larger,  and  filling  the  surrounding  va- 
cancy with  a  mixture  of  salt  and  fine  ice. 

10.  Cakes  are  made  of  a  great  variety  of  ingre- 
dients ;  the  principal  of  which  are,  flour,  butter,  eggs, 
sugar,  water,  milk,  cream,  yeast,  wine,  brandy,  rai- 
sins, currants,  caraway,  lemon,  orange,  almonds,  cin- 
namon, nutmeg,   allspice,  cloves,  and  ginger.     The 
different  combinations  of  these  materials,  produce  so 
great  a  variety  of  cakes,  that  it  would  be  tedious  to 
detail  even  their  names. 

11.  The  confectioner,  in  addition  to  those  articles 
which  may  be  considered  peculiar  to  his  business, 
deals  in  various  kinds  of  fruits  and  nuts,  which  grow 
in  different  climates.     He  also  sells  a  variety  of  pick- 
les, which  he  usually  procures  from  those  who  make 
it  a  business  to  prepare  them. 

12.  Soda-water  is  likewise  often  sold  by  the  con- 
fectioner.    This  agreeable  drink  is  merely  water,  im. 
pregnated  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  by  means  of  a  for- 
cing-pump.    The  confectioners,  however,  in  large  cit- 
ies, seldom  prepare  it  themselves,  as  they  can  procure 
it  at  less  expense,  and  with  less  trouble,  ready  made. 

13.  Sometimes,  the  business  of  the  pastry-cook  is 
united  with  that  of  the  confectioner,  especially  with 
that  branch  of  it    which  relates   to    making  caKes. 
Pies  and  tarts  consist  of  paste,  which,   in    baking, 
becomes  a  crust,  and  some  kind  of  fruit  or  meat,  or 
both,  with  suitable  seasoning.     The  art  of  making 
pies  and  tarts  is  practised,  more  or  less,  in  every  fam- 
ily :  it  is  not,  therefore,  essential  to  be  particular  in 
naming  the  materials  employed,  or  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  combined. 


THE   BREWER,  AND   THE   DISTILLER 

THE    BREWER. 

1.  BREWING  is  the  art  of  preparing  a  liquor,  which 
has  received  the  general  denomination  of  beer.     This 
beverage  can  be  brewed  from  any  kind  of  farinaceous 
grain  ;  but,  on  various  accounts,  barley  is  usually  pre- 
ferred.    It  is  prepared  for  the  brewer's  use  by  con- 
verting  it  into  malt,  which  is  effected  by  the  follow, 
ing  process. 

2.  The  grain  is  soaked  in  a  cistern  of  water  about 
two  days,  or  until  it  is  completely  saturated  with  that 
fluid.     It  is  then  taken  out,  and  spread  upon  a  floor 
in  a  layer  nearly  two  feet  thick.     When  the  inside 
of  this  heap  begins  to  grow  warm,  and  the  kernels  to 
germinate,  the  malster  checks  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  grain  in  that  situation  by  changing  it  to  the  out- 


48  THE     BREWER. 

side.  This  operation  is  continued,  until  the  saecha. 
rine  matter  in  the  barley  has  been  sufficiently  evolved 
by  the  natural  process  of  germination. 

3.  The  grain  is  next  transferred  to  the  kiln,  which 
is  an  iron  or  tile  floor,  perforated  with  small  holes, 
and  moderately  heated  beneath  with  a  fire  of  coke 
or  stone  coal.     Here,  the  grain  is  thoroughly  dried, 
and  the  principle  of  germination  completely  destroy. 
ed.      The    malt  thus  made   is    prepared   for   being 
brewed,  by  crushing  it  in  a  common  mill,  or  between 
rollers.     Malting,  in  Great  Britain,  and  in  some  oth- 
er parts  of  Europe,  is  a  business  distinct  from  brew, 
ing ;  but,  in  the  United  States,  the  brewers  generally 
make  their  own  malt. 

4.  The  firs'-  part  of  the  process  of  brewing  is  call- 
ed  mashing.     This  is   performed  in  a  large  tub,  or 
tun,  having  two  bottoms.     The  upper  one,  consisting 
of  several  moveable  pieces,  is  perforated  with  a  great 
number  of  small  holes ;  the  other,  though  tight  and 
immoveable  at  the  ed^es,  has   several  large  holes, 
furnished  with  ducts,  w.»ich  lead  to  a  cistern  beneath. 

5.  The  malt,  designed  for  one  mashing,  is  spread 
in^n  even  layer  on  the  upper  bottom,  and  thoroughly 
saturated  and  incorporated  with  water  nearly  boiling, 
by  means  of  iron  rakes,  which  are  made  to  revolve 
and  move  round  in  the  tub  by  the  aid  of  machinery. 
The  water,  together  with  the  soluble  parts  of  the  malt, 
at  length  passes  off,  through  the  holes  before  men. 
tioned,  into  the  reservoir  beneath. 

6.  The  malt  requires  to  be  mashed  two  or  three 
times  in  succession  with  fresh  quantities  of  water ; 
and  the  product  of  each  mashing  is  appropriated  to 
making  liquors  of  different  degrees  of  strength. 

7.  The  product  of  the  mashing-tun  is  called  wort, 
which,  being  transferred  to  a  large  copper  kettle,  is 
boiled   for  a  considerable  time  with  a   quantity  of 
hops,  and  then  drawn  off  into  large  shallow  cisterns, 


THE      BREWER.  49 

called  coolers.  When  the  mixture  has  become  cool 
enough  to  be  submitted  to  fermentation,  it  is  drawn 
off  into  the  working  tun. 

8.  The  fermentation  is  effected  with  yeast,  which, 
acting  on  the  saccharine  matter,  disengages  carbonic 
acid  gas.     This  part  of  the  process  requires  from 
eighteen  to  forty-eight  hours,  according  to  the  degree 
of  heat  which  may  be  in  the  atmosphere. 

9.  The  beer  is  then  drawn  off  into  casks  of  differ, 
ent  dimensions,  in  which  it  undergoes  a  still  further 
fermentation,  sometimes  called  the  brewer's  cleansing. 
During  this  fermentation,  the  froth,  or  ye^ast,  works 
out  at  the  bung-hole,  and  is  received  in  a  trough,  on 
the  edges  of  which  the  casks  have  been  placed.     The 
froth  thus  discharged  from  the  beer,  is  the  yeast  used 
by  the  brewers. 

10.  The  products  of  the  brewery  are  denominated 
beer,  ale,  and  porter.     The  difference  between  these 
liquors  arises,  chiefly,  from  the  manner  in  which  the 
malt  has  been  prepared,  the  relative  strength  impart- 
ed to  each,  and  the  extent  to  which  the  fermentation 
has  been  carried. 

11.  There  are  several  kinds  of  beer  ;  such  as  ta- 
ble  beer,  half  and  half,  and  strong  beer.     They  are 
adapted  to  use  soon  after  being  brewed,  and  differ 
from  each  other  but  little,  except  in  the  degree  of 
their  strength. 

12.  Ale  and  porter  are  called  stock  liquors ;  be- 
cause, not  being  designed  for  immediate  consumption, 
they  are  kept  for  a  considerable  time,  that  they  may 
improve  in  quality.     Porter  is  usually  prepared  for 
consumption  by  putting  it  into  bottles.     This  is  done 
either  at  the  brewery,  or  in  bottling  establishments. 
In  the  latter  case,  the  liquor  is  purchased  in  large 
quantities  from  the  brewer  by  persons  who  make  it 
their  business  to  supply  retailers  and  private  families. 

13.  We  have  evidence  that  fermented  liquor  was 

B 


50  THE      DISTILLER. 

in  use  three  thousand  years  ago.  It  was  first  used 
in  Egypt,  whence  it  passed  into  adjacent  countries, 
and  afterwai'd  into  Spain,  France,  and  England.  It 
was  sometimes  called  the  wine  of  barley;  and  one 
kind  of  it  was  denominated  Pelusian  drink,  from  the 
city  Pelusium,  where  it  was  first  made. 

14.  Among  the  nations  of  modern  times,  the  Eng- 
lish are  the  most  celebrated  for  brewing  good  liquors. 
London  porter  is  especially  in  great  repute,  not  only 
in  that  city,  but  in  distant  countries.  Much  ferment- 
ed liquor  of  the  different  kinds,  is  consumed  in  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  also  made  in  considerable 
perfection/ 

THE  DISTILLER. 

1.  Although  alcohol  can  be  extracted  from  any 
substance  containing  saccharine  matter,  yet  sugar- 
cane, grapes,  apples,  peaches,  rye,  corn,  and  rice,  on 
account  of  their  abundance,  and  superior  adaptation 
to  the  purpose,  are  more  commonly  used  than  any 
other.     As  whiskey  is  the  chief  article  of  this  kind, 
manufactured  in  the  United  States,  it  will  be  selected 
to  illustrate  the  general  principles  of  distillation. 

2.  Corn  and  rye  are  the  materials  from  which  this 
liquor  is  mostly  extracted ;  and  these  are  used  either 
together  or  separately,  at  the  option  of  the  distiller. 
The  meal  is  scalded  and  mashed  in  a  large  tub :  it  is 
then  permitted  to  stand,  until  it  has  become  a  little 
sweet,  when  more  water  is  poured  upon  it,  and,  at  a 
suitable  temperature,  a  quantity  of  yeast  is  added. 
To  aid  in  producing  rapid  fermentation,  a  little  malt 
is  sprinkled  on  the  top. 

3^.  After  an  adequate  fermentation  has  taken  place, 
the  leer,  as  it  is  called,  is  transferred  to  a  large  close 
tub,  from  the  top  of  which  leads  a  tube  extending  to 
the  worm  in  another  tub  filled  with  cold  water.  The 


THE     DISTILLER.  51 

worm  is  a  long  pewter  tube,  twisted  spirally,  that  it 
may  occupy  a  small  space. 

4.  The  beer  is  heated  in  the  close  tub,  by  means  of 
steam,  which  is  conveyed  to  it,  from  a  large  kettle  or 
boiler,  by  a  copper  or  iron  pipe.     The  heat  causes 
the  alcoholic   particles  to  rise  like  vapour,  and  pass 
into  the  worm,  where  they  are  condensed  into  a  wa- 
tery fluid,  which  passes  out  into  a  receiver. 

5.  At  first,  pure  alcohol  distils  from  the  worm  ; 
but  the  produce  becomes  gradually  weaker,  until,  at 
length,  the    spirit   in  the    beer    being  exhausted,  it 
consists  only  of  water  condensed  from  steam.     The 
remains  of  the  beer  are  given  as  feed  to  hogs  and 
cattle. 

6.  Brandy  is  distilled  from  grapes,  rum  from  sugar- 
cane, arrack  from  rice,  whiskey  from  various  kinds 
of  grain,   peach  -  brandy   from    peaches,  and   cider- 
brandy  from  apples. 

7.  The  great  variety  of  articles  employed  in  the 
productions  of  different  kinds  of  ardent  spirits,  must 
necessarily  vary  the  process  of  distillation  in  some 
particulars  ;  but,  in  all  cases,  fermentation  and  heat 
are  necessary  to  disengage  the  alcoholic  properties 
of  the  saccharine  matter,  and  also  an  apparatus  for 
condensing  the  same  from  a  gaseous  to  a  liquid  form. 
In  some  countries,  the  alembic  is  used  as  a  condenser, 
instead  of  a  worm.     The  form  of  this  instrument  is 
much  like  that  of  the  retort ;  and  when  applied,  it  is 
screwed  upon  the  top  of  the  boiler. 

8.  Spirits,  which  come  to  market  in  a  crude  state, 
are  sometimes  distilled  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
their  quality,  or  for  disguising  them  with  drugs  and 
colouring  substances,  that  they  may  resemble  supe- 
rior liquors.     The  process   by  which  they  are  thus 
changed,  or  improved,  is  called  rectification.     Many 
distilleries  in  large  cities,  are  employed  in  this  branch 
of  business. 


52  THE     DISTILLER. 

9.  There  is,  perhaps,  no  kind  of  merchandise  in 
which  the  public  is  more  deceived,  than  in  the  quality 
of  ardent  spirits  and  wines.     To  illustrate  this,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  observe,  that  Holland  gin  is  made 
by  distilling  French  brandy  with  juniper- berries  ;  buv 
most  of  the  spirits  which  are  vended  under  that  name, 
consist  only  of  rum  or  whiskey,  flavoured  with  the 
oil  of  turpentine.      Genuine  French  brandy  is  dis- 
tilled from  grapes  ;  but  the  article  usually  sold  under 
that  denomination,  is  whiskey  or  rum  coloured  with 
treacle  or  scorched  sugar,  and  flavoured  with  the  oil 
of  wine,  or  some  kind  of  drug. 

10.  The   ancient   Greeks  and   Romans  were    ac- 
quainted with  an    instrument   for  distillation,  which 
they  denominated  amlix.     This  was  adopted,  a  long 
time  afterward,  by  the  Arabian  alchemists,  for  ma- 
king   their  chemical   experiments  ;    but    they   made 
some  improvements  in  its  construction,  and  changed 
its  name  to  alembic. 

11.  The  ancients,  however,  knew  nothing  of  alco- 
hol.    The  method  of  extracting  this  intoxicating  sub- 
stance,  was  probably  discovered  some  time  in  the 
twelfth  or  thirteenth   century ;  but,  for  many  ages 
after  the  discovery,  it  was  used  only  as  a  medicine, 
and    was    kept   for   sale   exclusively   in    apothecary 
shops.     It  is  now  used  as  a  common  article  of  stim- 
ulation, in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 

12.  But  the  opinion  is  becoming  general,  among 
all  civilized  people,  that  the  use  of  alcohol,  for  this 
purpose,  is  destructive  of  health,  and  the   primary 
cause  of  most  of  the  crimes  and  pauperism  in  all 
places,  where  its  consumption  is  common.     The  for- 
mation  of  Temperance  Societies,  and  the  publication 
of  their  reports,  together  with  the  extensive  circula- 
tion of  periodical  papers,  devoted  to  the  cause  of 
temperance,  have  already  diminished,  to  a  very  great 
extent,  tl>o  use  of  spirituous  liquors. 


THE     DISTILLER.  53 

13.  Although  the  ancients  knew  nothing  of  distil 
ling  alcohol,  yet  they  were  well  versed  in  the  art  oj 
making  wine.      We  read  of  the  vineyard,  as  far  back 
as  the  time  of  Noah,  the  second  father  of  nations  ; 
and,  from  that  period   to  the  present,  the  grape  has 
been  the  object  of  careful  cultivation,  in  all  civilized 
nations,  where  the  climate  and  soil  were  adapted  to 
the  purpose. 

14.  The   general  process   of  making  wine  from 
grapes,  is  as  follows.     The  grapes,  when  gathered, 
are  crushed  by  treading  them  with  the  feet,  and  rub- 
bing  them   in  the  hands,  or  by  some  other  means, 
with  the  view  to  press  out  the  juice.     The  whole  is 
then  suffered  to  stand  in  the  vat,  until  it  has  passed 
through  what  is  termed  the  vinous  fermentation,  when 
the  juice,   which,  in   this   state,  is   termed   must,   is 
drawn  off  into  open  vessels,  where  it  remains  until 
the  pressing  of  the  husks  is  finished. 

15.  The  husks  are  submitted,  in  hair  bags,  to  the 
press ;  and  the  must  which  is  the  result  of  this  op- 
eration,  is  mixed  with  that  drawn  from  the  vat.     The 
whole  is»  then  put  into  casks,  where  it  undergoes  an- 
other  fermentation,  called  the  spirituous,  which  oc- 
cupies from  six  to  twelve  days.     The  casks  are  then 
bunged  up,  and  suffered  to  stand  a  few  weeks,  when 
the  wine  is   racked  off  from  the  lees,  and  again  re- 
turned to  the  same  casks,  after  they  have  been  per- 
fectly cleansed.     Two  such  rackings  generally  ren- 
der the  wine  clear  and  brilliant. 

16.  In  many  cases,  sugar,  brandy,  and  flavoring 
substances,  are  necessary,  to  render  the  wine  palate- 
able  ;  but  the  best  kinds  of  grapes  seldom  require  any 
of  these  additions.     Wine-merchants  often  adulterate 
their  wines  in  various  ways,  and  afterwards  sell  them 
for  those  which  are  genuine.      To  correct  acidity, 
and  some  other  unpleasant  qualities,  lead,  copper, 
antimony,  and  corrosive  sublimate,  are  often  used 


54  THE     DISTILLER. 

by  the  dealers  in  wine  ;  though  the  practice  is  at- 
tended with  deleterious  effects  to  the  health  of  the 
consumers. 

17.  The  wines  most  usually  met  with  in  this  coun- 
try, are  known  by  the  following  denominations,  viz., 
Madeira  and  Tenerijfe,  from  islands  of  the  same 
names  ;  Port,  from  Portugal ;  Sherry  and  Malaga, 
from  Spain  ;  Champagne,  Burgundy,  and  Claret,  from 
France  ;  and  Hock,  from  Germany. 


THE    BUTCHEiv. 

1.  MAN  is  designed  by  nature,  to  subsist  on  vege- 
•.able  and  animal  food.     This  is  obvious,  from  the 
structure  of  his  organs  of  mastication  and  digestion. 
It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  animal  food  is,  in  all 
cases,  positively  required.     In  some  countries,  the 
mass  of  the  people  subsist  chiefly  or  entirely  on  vege- 
tables.    This  is.  especially  the  case  in  the  East  In- 
dies, where  rice  and  fruits  are  the  chief  articles  of 
food. 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  the  people  who  live  in  the 
higher  latitudes  subsist  principally  on  the  flesh  of  an- 
imals.    This  is  preferred,  not  only  because  it  is  bet- 
ter  suited  to  brace  the  system  against  the  rigours  of 
the  climate,  but  because  it  is  most  easily  provided. 


56  THEBUTCHER. 

In  temperate  climates,  a  due  proportion  of  both  an. 
imal  and  vegetable  substances  is  consumed. 

3.  Although  the  skins  of  beasts  were  used  for  the 
purpose  of  clothing,  soon  after  the  fall  of  man,  we 
have  no  intimation  from  the  Scriptures,  that  their 
flesh,  or  that  of  any  other  animal,  was  used,  until  af- 
ter the  flood.     The  Divine  permission  was  then  given 
to  Noah  and  his  posterity,  to  use,  for  this  purpose, 
"  every  moving  thing  that  liveth."     But  in  the  law  of 
Moses,  delivered  several  centuries  after  this  period, 
many  exceptions  are  to  be  found,  which  were  intend- 
ed to  apply  only  to  the  Jewish  people.     These  restric- 
tions were  removed,  on  the  introduction  of  Christi- 
anity.    The  unbelieving  Jews,  however,  still  adhere 
to  their  ancient  law. 

4.  The  doctrine  of  transmigration  has  had  a  great 
influence  in  diminishing  the  consumption  of  animal 
food.     This  absurd  notion  arose  somewhere  in  Cen- 
tral Asia,  and,  at  a  very  early  period,  it  spread  into 
Egypt,  Greece,  Italy,  and  finally  among  the  remote 
countries  of  the  ancient  world.     It  is  still  entertained 
by  the  heathen  nations  of  Eastern  Asia,  by  the  tribes 
in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Caucasus,  and  by  some  of  the 
American  savages,  and  African  negroes. 

5.  The  leading  feature  of  this  doctrine  is,  that  the 
souls  of  departed  men  reappear  on  earth  in  the  bod- 
ies of  animals,  both  as  a  punishment  for  crimes  com- 
mitted during  life,  and  as  a  means  of  purification  from 
sin.     This  dogma  was  adopted  by  the  Pythagoreans, 
a  sect  of  Grecian  philosophers  ;  and,  as  a  natural  con- 
sequence, it  led  them,  as  it  has  ever  done  the  votaries 
of  this  opinion,  to  the  veneration  of  animals,  and  to 
abstinence  from  their  flesh,  lest  they  might  devour 
that  of  some  of  their  deceased  friends  or  relatives. 

6.  People  who  dwell  thinly  scattered  in  the  coun- 
try, rear  and  slaughter  the  animals  for  the  supply  of 
their  own  tables ;  but,  in  villages,  large  towns,  and 


T  H  E     B  U  T  C  H  E  R.  57 

cities,  the  inhabitants  depend  chiefly  on  the  butcher 
for  their  meat.  The  animals  commonly  slaughtered 
are,  sheep,  cattle,  and  hogs. 

7.  The  butchers  obtain  their  animals  from  the  farm- 
ers,  or  from  drovers,  who  make  it  a  business  to  pur- 
chase  them  in  the  country,  and  drive  them  to  market. 
The  farmers  near  large  cities,  who  have  good  grazing 
farms,  are   accustomed  to  buy  lean   cattle,  brought 
from  a  distance,  with  a  view  to  fatten  them  for  sale. 
There  are  also  persons  in  the  cities,  who  might,  with 
propriety,  be  called  cattle  brokers ;  since  they  supply 
the  butchers  of  small  capital  with  a  single  animal  at 
a  time,  on  a  credit  of  a  few  days. 

8.  Every  butcher  who  carries  on  the  business,  has 
a  house  in  which  he  kills  his  animals,  and  prepares 
them  for  sale.     When  it  is  intended  to  slaughter  an 
ox,  a  rope  is  thrown  about  his  horns  or  neck,  with 
which   he   is   forced   into  the  slaughter-house,  and 
brought  to  the  floor  by  the  aid  of  a  ring.     The  butch- 
er  then  knocks  him  on  the  head,  cuts  his  throat,  de- 
prives him  of  his  hide,  takes  out  his  entrails,  washes 
the  inside  of  his  body  with  water,  and  cuts  him  up 
into  quarters.     The  beef  is  now  ready  to  be  convey, 
ed  to   the   market-house.     The   process  of  dressing 
other  quadrupeds  varies  but  little  from  this  in  its  gen. 
eral  details.     The  cellular  substance  of  mutton,  lamb 
and  veal,  is  often  inflated  with  air,  that  the  meat  may 
appear  fat  and  plump. 

9.  In  large  cities  and  towns,  the  meat  is  chiefly 
sold  in  the  market-house,  where  each  butcher  has  a 
stall  rented  from  the  corporation.     It  is  carried  there 
in  a  cart,  and  cut  into  suitable  pieces  with  a  saw, 
knife,  and  a  broad  iron  cleaver. 

10.  In  some  of  the  large  cities,  it  is  a  practice 
among  the  butchers,  to  employ  runners  to  carry  the 
meat  to  the  houses,  of  those  customers  who  may  de- 
sire this  accommodation.     In  villages,  where  there  is 


58  T  H  E     B  U  T  C  H  E  R. 

no  market-house,  the  butcher  carries  his  meats  from 
door  to  door  in  some  kind  of  vehicle. 

11.  Those  who  follow  this  occupation  usually  en- 
joy good  health,  and,  as  they  advance  in  years,  in 
most  cases,  become  corpulent.  Their  good  health 
arises  from  exercise  in  the  open  air  ;  and  their  cor- 
pulency, from  subsisting  principally  on  fresh  meats. 
It  is  thought,  however,  that  their  longevity  is  not  so 
great  as  that  of  men  in  many  other  employments. 


THE  TOBACCO  PLANTER,  AND  THE  TOBACCONIST 
THE    TOBACCO    PLANTER. 

1.  TOBACCO  is  a  native   production  of  America, 
which  was  in  common  use  among  nearly  all  of  the 
Indian  tribes,  when  this  continent  was  discovered  by 
Europeans.     Its  original  name  among  the  nations  of 
the  islands,  was  yoli ;  whilst,  with  those  of  the  con- 
tinent, it  was  termed  petum.     The  Spaniards,  how. 
ever,  chose  to  call  it  tobacco,  a  term  in  the  Haytian 
language,  which  designated  the  instrument  in  which 
the  herb  was  smoked. 

2.  This  plant  was  first  introduced  into  Spain,  then 
into  Portugal  and  France,  and,  at  length,  into  other 
countries  of  the  Eastern  continent.     Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh carried  it  from  Virginia  to  England,  and  taught 
his  countrymen  the  various  methods  of  consuming  >t 
amonsf  the  natives. 


60  THE     TOBACCO     PLANTER. 

3.  The  introduction  of  this  nauseous  plant  into  Eu- 
rope, was  everywhere  attended  with  ridicule  and  op- 
position.     Hundreds  of  pamphlets  were  published,  in 
various   languages,   dissuading  from   its   use  in   the 
strongest   terms.      Even   James  the  First,  king  of 
Great  Britain,  did  not  regard  it  as  inconsistent  with 
the  royal  dignity  to  take  up  his  pen  on  the  subject. 
In  his  "  Counterblast  to  Tobacco,"  published  in  1 603, 
occurs  the  following  remarkable  passage  :   "  It  is  a 
custom  loathsome  to  the  eye,  hateful  to  the  nose,  harm, 
ful  to  the  brain  ;  and,  in  the  black  fume  thereof,  near- 
est resembling  the  horrible  Stygian  smoke  of  the  pit 
that  is  bottomless." 

4.  Pope  Urban  VIII.  excommunicated  those  who 
took  tobacco  in  churches ;  and  Queen  Elizabeth  also 
prohibited  its  use  in  houses  of  public  worship.     In 
1689,  an  ordinance  was  published  in  Transylvania, 
threatening  those  who  should  plant  tobacco  with  the 
confiscation  of  their  estates.      The  grand-duke   of 
Moscow,  and  the  king  of  Persia,  prohibited  its  use 
under  the  penalty  of  the  loss  of  the  nose,  and  even  of 
'ife.     At  present,  however,  the  consumption  of  tobac- 
co is  looked  upon  with  so  much  greater  indulgence, 
that  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  most  of  those 
of  other  nations,  derive  a  considerable  revenue  from 
the  trade  in  this  article. 

5.  But  it  is  truly  astonishing,  that  a  nauseous  weed, 
of  an  acrid  taste,  disagreeable  odour,  and  deleterious 
qualities,  should  have  had  so  great  an  influence  on  the 
social  condition  of  nations  ;   that  its  culture  should 
have  spread  more  rapidly  than  that  of  the  most  use- 
ful plants  ;  and  that  it  should,  consequently,  have  be. 
come  an  article  of  extensive  commerce. 

6.  Of  this  plant  there  are  several  species,  which 
differ  from  each  other,  in  size,  strength,  and  flavour. 
Some  one  or  more  of  these  varieties,  are  cultivated  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  :  but  especially  in  North 


THE     TOBACCO     PLANTER.  61 

and  South  America,  and  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is 
one  of  the  staple  productions  of  Maryland,  Virginia, 
Kentucky,  and  Ohio.  The  whole  value  of  the  tobac- 
co, exported  annually  from  the  United  States,  amounts 
to  about  five  millions  of  dollars. 

7.  The  following  description  of  the  mode  of  cul- 
tivating this  plant,  and  preparing  it  for  the  tobacco- 
nist, is  applicable  to  the  state  of  Maryland.     A  little 
variation  in  some  of  the  details,  would  render  it  ap- 
plicable to  other  parts  of  the  world. 

8.  A  small  piece  of  ground,  say  one-sixteenth  of 
an  acre,  is  prepared  by  burning  a  large  quantity  of 
brush  upon  it.     The  surface  is  rendered  light  and 
even,  by  means  of  a  hoe  and  rake  ;  and  the  seeds, 
mixed  with  ashes,  are  sown  as  equally  as  possible. 
After  they  have  been  covered  with  earth,  the  ground 
is  trodden  down  with  the  bare  feet.      The  tobacco 
beds  are  made  in  March,  and  the  plants  become  fit 
for  the  field  in  eight  or  ten  weeks. 

9.  The  field,  in  which  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  is 
to  be  continued,  is  ploughed  two  or  three  times,  and 
then  cross-ploughed  into  equal  checks,  in   each  of 
which  is  made  a  hill.     Immediately  after  a  rain,  the 
plants  are  transferred  to  these  hills,  in  the  same  man- 
ner  in  which  cabbages  are  transplanted.     While  the 
tobacco  is  growing,  the  ground  is  ploughed  several 
times,  in  order  to  keep  it  light,  and  to  aid  in  destroy, 
ing  the  weeds.     When  the  plants  are  nearly  grown, 
the  tops  are  lopped  or  cut  off,  to  prevent  them  from 
running  to  seed,  and  to  cause  the  leaves  to  grow 
larger  and  thicker. 

10.  In  July  or  August,  the  tobacco-worms  begin  to 
make  their  appearance,  and   to  threaten  the  whole 
crop  with  destruction.      To  arrest  the   ravages  of 
these  insidious  enemies,  all   hands,  both  great  and 
small,  together  with  all  the  turkeys  that  can  be  mus- 
*e  «.!.  arc  brought  into  the  field.     These  worms  are 


62  THE      TOBACCONIST. 

produced  from  the  eggs  of  a  large  insect,  called  the 
horn-bug. 

11.  The  tobacco,  when  ripe,  is  cut  near  the  ground, 
and  hung  on  small  sticks  about  five  feet  in  length, 
generally   by  pegs   driven  into   the  stalks.      These 
sticks  are  then  laid  upon  poles,  arranged  at  proper 
distances  from  each  other  in  the  tobacco-house,  shed, 
or  hovel,  as  the  case  may  be.     It  is  then  suffered  to 
dry  gradually  in  the  atmosphere ;  or  a  large  fire  is 
made  in  the  tobacco-house,  to  effect  the  drying  more 
rapidly. 

12.  The  leaves  are  next  stripped  from  the  stalks, 
and  tied  in  small  bunches  according  to  their  quality. 
This  can  only  be  done  when  in  order,  or  rather,  when 
the  leaves  are  rendered  tough  by  the  absorption  of 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere.     These  bunches,  when 
the  leaves  are  so  damp  that  they  will  not  break,  and 
so  dry  that  they  will  not  heat,  are  packed  in  hogs- 
heads by  the  aid  of  a  large  lever  press.     The  tobac- 
co is  inspected  in  public  warehouses,   by  men  who 
have  been  appointed  for  the  purpose  by  the  public 
authorities. 

THE   TOBACCONIST. 

1.  It  is  the  business  of  the  tobacconist  to  convert 
the  leaves  of  the  tobacco  plant  into  snuff,  cigars,  and 
smoking  and  chewing  tobacco. 

2.  Although  there  may  seem  to  be  a  great  variety 
of  snuffs,  yet  they  may  be  all  reduced  to  three  kinds, 
viz.,  Scotch,  rappee,  and  maccouba.     These  are  va- 
riously modified   by  the  quality  of  the  tobacco,  by 
some  little  variation  in  the  manufacture,  and  by  the 
articles  employed  in  communicating  the  desired  fla. 
vour. 

3.  In  manufacturing  snuff,  the  tobacco  is  ground 
in  a  mill  of  a  peculiar  construction.     Before  the  weed 
is  submitted  to  this  operation,  it  is  reduced  to  a  cer- 


THE     TOBACCONIST.  63 

tain  degree  of  fineness,  by  means  of  a  'Cutting  ma- 
chine ;  and  then  spread  in  a  heap,  one  or  two  feet 
thick,  and  sprinkled  with  water,  that  it  may  heat  and 
sweat.  The  time  required  in  this  preparation  de- 
pends upon  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  kind  of 
snuff  for  which  the  tobacco  is  designed. 

4.  Scotch  snuff  is  made  of  the  strongest  sort  of 
tobacco,  and  is  put  up  in  bladders  and  bottles  without 
being  scented.     Rappee  and  maccouba  are  put  up  in 
jars  and  bottles ;  and  the  former  is  generally  scented 
with  bergamot,  and  the  latter  with  the  ottar  of  roses. 
Sometimes,  several  ingredients,  agreeable  to  the  ol- 
factory nerves,  are  employed. 

5.  Cigars  are  composed  of  two  parts,  called  the 
wrapper  and  the  jilting.     The  former  is  made  of  pie- 
ces of  thin  leaves,  cut  to  a  proper  shape,  and  the  lat- 
ter of  those  which  are  more  broken.     In  all  cases, 
the  leaves  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars  are  de- 
prived of  the  stems,  which  are  reserved,  either  to  be 
converted  into  inferior  kinds  of  snuff,  or  for  exporta 
tion  to  Holland,  where  they  are  usually  flattened  be 
tween  rollers,  and  afterwards  cut  fine  for  smoking 
tobacco,  to  be  sold  to  the  poorer  class  of  people. 

6.  The  value  of  cigars  depends  chiefly  on  the  qual- 
ity  of  the  tobacco.     The  best  kind  for  this  purpose, 
grows  on  the  island  of  Cuba,  near  Havana.     Tobac- 
co from  this  seed  is  raised  in  many  other  places  ;  and 
such,  among  tobacconists,  is  called  seed  ;  but  it  [.ass- 
es, among  smokers  of  limited  experience,  for  the  real 
Havana.     A  very  fine  silky  tobacco  of  this  sort,  is 
cultivated  in  Connecticut,  which  is  much  esteemed. 

7.  An  expert  hand  will  make  five  or  six  hundred 
Spanish  cigars  in  a  day,  or  from  one  thousand  to  fif. 
teen  hundred  of  those  composed  of  Maryland  or  Ken- 
tucky tobacco.     Making  cigars,  being  light  work,  is 
well  adapted  to  females,  of  whom  great  numbers  are 
regularly  employed  in  this  branch  of  business.     To- 


64  THE     TOBACCONIST. 

bacco  intended  for  the  pipe,  is  cut  in  a  machine ;  and, 
after  having  been  properly  dried,  it  is  put  up  in  pa- 
pers of  different  sizes. 

8.  Chewing  tobacco  is  almost  exclusively  prepared 
from  the  species  of  this  plant  which  is  cultivated  in 
Virginia,  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  James  river.     It  is 
better  adapted  to  this  purpose  than  any  other,  on  ac- 
count of  its  superior  strength,  and  the  great  amount 
of  resinous  matter  which  it  contains. 

9.  The  first  operation  in  preparing  chewing  tobac- 
co, is  that  of  depriving  the  leaves  of  the  stems.     The 
former*  are  then  twisted  by  hand  into  plugs  of  differ, 
ent  sizes,  or  spun  into  a  continued  thread  by  the  aid 
of  the  tobacco. wheel,  which  is  a  simple  machine  moved 
by  a  crank.     The  thread  thus  produced  is  formed 
into  bunches,  or  twists,  containing  a  definite  amount 
of  tobacco. 

10.  The  tobacco,  having  been  put  into  the  form 
Jesired,  is  moistened  with  water,  packed  in  strong 
kegs,  and  then  pressed  with  powerful  screw-presses. 
The  whole  process  is  completed  by  heating  the  kegs, 
with  their  contents,  for  several  days,  in  an  oven  or  a 
tight  room  made  for  the  purpose.     The  same  change 
in  the  quality  of  the  tobacco  is  also  produced  by  suffer- 
ing  it  to  stand  nine  or  twelve  months,  before  it  is  dis- 
posed of  to  the  consumers. 

11.  Snuff  is  very  commonly  used  in  the  Southern 
states,  as  a  dentifrice  ;  or,  at  least,  it  is  applied  to  the 
teeth  wiih  this  ostensible  object.     The  application  is 
made  by  means  of  a  small  stick,  having  the  fibres 
minutely  divided  at  one  end.     Although  the  tobacco 
seems  to  have  the  desired  effect  upon  the  teeth,  so  far 
as  respects  their  appearance,  yet  its  stimulating  and 
narcotic  powers  are  more  to  be  dreaded  in  this  mode 
of  using  it  than  in  any  other.     Many  females  ruin 
their  complexion  and  constitution,  by  rubbing  snuff; 


THE     TOBACCONIST.  65 

9.nd  the  deleterious  effects  of  the  practice  are  so  well 
known,  that  few  are  willing  to  avow  it. 

12.  Tobacco   is  used,  in  some  one  of  its  various 
forms,  by  a  great  majority  of  mankind  ;  and,  although 
it  is  generally  acknowledged  to  be,  in  most  cases,  in- 
jurious  to   the   constitution,  and  often  destructive  of 
health,  yet  its  consumption  seems  to  be  on  the  in. 
crease.     It  is  one  of  the  objects  of  trade,  even  in  the 
most  obscure  parts  of  the  world;  and   its  devotees 
must  and  will  have  a  supply,  even  though  they  stinl 
themselves  in  food  and  clothing. 

13.  As  regards  the  influence  which  this  plant  as. 
sumes  over  its  votaries,  it  may  be  classed  with  alco- 
hol  and   opium  ;  although  its  effects  are  not  so  de- 
structive ;   nor  is   the  expense  so  considerable  ;  yet 
this  is  an  item  by  no  means  unworthy  of  attention,  as 
the  aggregate  sum  annually  expended  for  this  useless 
narcotic  in  the  United  States,  would  be  sufficient  for 
the  support  of  common  schools  in  every  part  of  the 
country. 

14.  The  general  use  of  tobacco  is  perpetuated  from 
generation  to  generation,  by  the  desire,  common  to 
children  and  yt)ung  people,  to  act  and  appear  like 
older  persons.     Few  ever  begin  the  use  of  this  nau- 
seous weed,  because  it  is  agreeable  to  the  senses  to 
which  it  is  applied  ;  but  because  they  fancy,  in  their 
childish  simplicity,  that  it  confers  upon  them  some 
additional  importance. 

F 


THE    MANUFACTURER    OF    CLOTH. 

1.  MEN,  in  the  primitive  ages,  were  clad  with  the 
skins  of  animals,  until  they  had  acquired   sufficient 
skill  to  employ  a  better  material.     It  cannot  be  deter- 
mined from  history,  at  what  time  cloth  began  to  be 
manufactured  from  animal  or  vegetable  fibre  ;  but  it 
is  evident,  that  it  was  done  at  a  very  early  period, 
even  long  before  the  flood. 

2.  The  fibres  of  the  vegetable  kind,  most  common- 
ly applied  to  this  purpose,  are  the  bark  of  several 
kinds  of  trees,  together  with  hemp,  flax,  and  cotton  ; 
and  those  of  the  animal  kingdom  are,  silk,  the  wool 
of  the  sheep  and  lama,  and  the  hair,  or  wool,  of  the 
goat  and  camel. 

3.  That  the  general  process  of  manufacturing  cloth 
may  be  perfectly  understood,  the  manner  of  perform- 


THE      MANUFACTURER      OF     CLOTH,    67 

ing  several  operations  must  be  separately  described. 
For  the  purpose  of  illustration,  cotton,  wool,  and  flax, 
will  be  selected ;  because  these  are  the  materials  of 
which  our  clothing  is  principally  fabricated.  The 
operations  of  making  cloth,  may  be  comprised  under 
carding  and  combing,  spinning,  weaving,  and  dressing. 

4.  Carding  and  Combing. — Wool  and  cotton  are 
carded,  with  the  view  of  disentangling  the  fibres,  and 
arranging  them  longitudinally  in  small  rolls.     This  is 
done  by  means  of  the  teeth  of  two  instruments,-called 
cards,  used  by  hand  on  the  knee,  or  by  the  carding 
machine,  which  acts  on  the  same  principle,  although 
far  more  expeditiously. 

5.  Machines  for  carding  wool  are  to  be  found  in 
every  district    of  country  in  the   United  States,  in 
which  the  people  manufacture  much  of  their  woollen 
cloths  in  their  own  families.     On  account  of  the  rough- 
ness  of  the  fibres  of  wool,  it  is  necessary  to  cover  them 
well  with  grease  or  oil,  that  they  may  move  freely  on 
each  other  during  the  carding  and  spinning. 

6.  Long,  coarse,  or  hard  wools,  used  in  the  man. 
ufacture  of  camlets,  bombazines,  Circassians,  and  oth- 
er  worsted  fabrics,  are  not  carded,  but  combed.     In 
England,  and  in  other  countries  where  much  of  this 
kind  of  wool  is  used,  wool-combing  forms  a  distinct 
trade.     The  operation  consists,  chiefly,  in  drawing 
the  locks  through  steel  combs,  the  teeth  of  which  are 
similar  to  our  common  flax-hatchel.     The  comb  is 
heated  to  a  certain  temperature,  to  cause  the  fibres 
to  straighten,  and  to  remove  from  them  the  rough, 
ness  which  might  otherwise  cause  the  cloth  made  of 
them  to  thicken  in  washing,  like  flannel. 

7.  The  old  method  of  combing  wool,  however,  has 
been  in   part  superseded  by  the  application  of  ma- 
chines,  the  first  of  which  was  invented  by  Edmund 
Cartwright,  of  England,  about  the  year  1790.     The 
fibres  of  flax  are  arranged  in  a  parallel  direction, 


68     THE      MANUFACTURER      OF      CLOTH. 

and  freed   from   tow,  by  drawing  them  through  a 
hatchel 

8.  Spinning. — The  process  of  spinning  consists  in 
twisting  the  fibres  into  threads.     The  most  simple 
method  by  which  this  is  effected,  is  that  by  the  com- 
mon  spinning-wheel.      Of  this  well-known  machine 
there  are  two  kinds ;  one  of  which  is  applied  to  spin- 
ning wool,  cotton,  and  tow,  and  the  other,  to  spinning 
flax. 

9.  This  operation  is,  in  most  cases,  performed  by 
females  in  the  following  manner.     The  roll  of  cotton. 
or  wool  is  attached  to  the  spindle,  which  is  put  in 
rapid  motion  by  a  band  passing  over  it  from  the  rim, 
or  periphery  of  the  wheel.     While  the   spinster  is 
turning  the  wheel  with  the  right  hand,  she  brings  back 
from  the  spindle  her  left,  with  which  she  has  laid  hold 
of  the  roll  a  few  inches  from  the  upper  end.     When 
the  yarn  thus  produced  has  been  sufficiently  twisted, 
she  turns  it  upon  the  spindle,  and  repeats  the  same 
operation,  until  it  is  full.     This  yarn  is  formed  into 
skeins  by  winding  it  upon  a  reel. 

10.  The  mode  of  spinning  tow  is  a  little  different. 
The  material  having  been  formed  into  tats  by  hand- 
cards,  the  fibres  are  drawn  out  fjom  between  the 
fingers  and  thumb  by  the  twisted  thread,  while  the 
spinster  gradually  moves  backward.    Worsted  is  spun 
from  combed  wool  nearly  in  the  same  manner. 

11.  The  /ax  or  little  wheel  is  moved  by  the  foot, 
so  that  both  hands  of  the  spinster  are  used  in  supply, 
ing,  disposing,  and  occasionally  wetting  the  fibres,  as 
they  are  drawn  from  the  distaff.     Two  bands  pass 
from  the  periphery  of  the  wheel,  each  of  which  per- 
forms a  distinct  office :  the  one  keeps  in  motion  the 
spindle,  which  twists  the  thread  ;  the  other  moves  the 
fliers,  which  wind  the  thread  upon  a  spool,  as  fast  as 
it  is  produced. 

12.  Spinning  was  almost  exclusively  performed  in 


THE     MANUFACTURER     OF     CLOTH.     69 

the  modes  just  described,  until  the  year  1767,  when 
Richard  Heargreaves,  of  England,  invented  a  machine 
for  spinning  cotton,  which  he  called  a  jenny.  This 
consisted,  at  first,  of  eight  spindles,  moved  by  a  com- 
mon wheel,  or  cylinder,  which  was  turned  by  hand. 
The  number  of  spindles  was  afterwards  increased  to 
eighty-four. 

13.  In  1769,  Richard  Arkwright,  also  an  English, 
man,  invented  the  waler-spinning-frame.     The  essen- 
tial and  most  important  feature  of  this  invention,  con- 
sists in  drawing  out  the  cotton,  by  causing  it  to  pass 
between  successive  pairs  of  rollers,  which  revolve  with 
different  velocities,  and  which  act  as  substitutes  for 
the'  thumb  and  fingers,  as  applied  in  common  spin- 
ning.    These  rollers  are  combined  with  the  spindle 
and  fliers  of  the  common  flax-wheel. 

14.  Another   machine    was   invented   by  Samuel 
Crompton,  in  1779.     It  is  called  a  mule,  because  it 
combines  the  principles  of  the  two  preceding  machines. 
It  produces  finer  yarn  than  either  of  them,  and  has 
nearly  superseded  the  jenny.     Before  the  cotton  is 
submitted  to  the  spinning  machine,  it  is  prepared  by 
several  others,  by  which  it  is  carded,  extended,  and 
partially  twisted. 

15.  In  the  manufactories,  the  fine,   short  wools, 
used  in  the  fabrication  of  broadcloths,  flannels,  and  a 
variety  of  other  cloths,  are  carded  by  machinery,  and 
spun  on  a  stubbing  or  roving-machine,  or  on  a  jenny 
or  mule,  in  each  of  which  the  spindles  are  mounted  on 
a  carriage,  which  is  moved  backwards  in  stretching 
and  twisting  the  material,  and  forwards  in  winding 
the  thread  upon  the  spindle. 

16.  Worsted  still  continues  to  be  spun,  in  most 
cases,  on  the  common  spinning-wheel,  as  it  can  be 
done  more  perfectly  in  this  way,  than  by  any  other 
machine  which  has  hitherto  been  invented.     Several 
machines  have  been  constructed,  which  spin  coarse 


70      THE      MANUFACTURER      OF      CLOTH. 

threads  of  flax  very  well,  and  with  great  rapidity ; 
but  the  materials  for  fine  linen  fabrics  are  still  spur. 
on  the  ancient  flax-wheel. 

17.  Weaving. — The  first  step  preparatory  to  wear- 
ing, is  to  form  a  warp,  consisting  of  a  number  of 
threads,  which  extend  through  the  whole  piece.     To 
produce  this  parallel  arrangement,  the  yarn  is  wound 
upon  spools,  which  are  afterwards  placed  in  a  frame 
perpendicularly  by   means   of  rods,  on  which  they 
move  as  upon  an  axle.     From  these  spools,  the  yarns 
are  stretched  upon  pegs  to  the  length  of  the  proposed 
web,  and  are  carried  round  or  doubled  a  sufficient 
number  of  times  to  make  it  the  proper  width.     The 
same  object  is  more  expeditiously  effected,  by  wind- 
ing the  yarn  spirally  on  a  revolving  frame. 

18.  The  next  step  consists  in  winding  the  warp  on 
a  cylindrical  beam,  which  is  usually  about  ten  inches 
in  diameter.     The  threads,  having  been  put  through 
a  harness,  composed  of  moveable  parts,  called  heddJ.es, 
and  also  through  a  sley,  or  reed,  are  fastened  on  the 
other  side  to  a  large  rod,  from  which  throe  ropes  ex- 
tend  to  another  cylinder,  on  which  the  cloth  is  wound, 
as  fast  as  it  is  woven. 

19.  The  heddles  are  suspended  from  cross-pieces, 
on  the  top  of  the  loom,  by  means  of  cords  and  pul- 
leys, and,  during  the  operation  of  weaving,  are  mo- 
ved  up  and  down  alternately  by  the  aid  of  treadles. 
This  reciprocal  motion  causes  the  web  to  open  ;  and, 
while  in  this  position,  a  shuttle,  containing  the  woo/, 
weft,  or  filling  on  a  quill  or  bobbin,  is  passed  through 
from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to  right,  as  often  as 
the  position  of  the  warp  is  changed.     The  threads  of 
the  filling  are  beaten  up  by  the  iced,  or  sley,  which 
is  placed  in  the  lay. 

20.  Weaving  is  a  business  extensive  in  its  applica- 
tion, being  divided  into  almost  as  many  branches  as 
there  are  woven  fabrics.     Plain  cotton,  linen,  wool- 


THE     MANUFACTURER      OF     CLOTH.       71 

len,  and  twilled  cloths,  silks,  satins,  carpets,  &c.,  are 
all  woven  in  looms  of  some  kind,  constructed  on  the 
same  general  principles.  Power-looms,  driven  by 
water  or  steam,  are  now  generally  introduced  into 
th'j  cotton  and  woollen  manufactories,  both  in  Europe 
and  in  this  country.  One  person  can  attend  to  two 
of  these  looms  at  the  same  time,  and  each  one  will 
weave  between  twenty  and  forty  yards  in  a  day. 

21.  Dressing. — Cotton  fabrics,  when  the  webs  are 
taken  from  the  loom,  are  covered  with  an  irregular 
nap,  or  down,  formed  by  the  protruding  ends  of  the 
fibres.     From  the  finest  cottons,  this  is  removed,  by 
drawing  them  rapidly  over  an  iron  cylinder,  kept  red- 
hot  by  a  fire  within.     The  flame  of  coal-gas  has  re 
ccntly  been  applied,  to  effect  the  same  object. 

22.  Common  domestic  fabrics  are  taken  from  the 
loom,  and,  without  further  preparation,  are  folded  up 
into  pieces  for  sale.      Finer  articles  are  usually  whi- 
tened and  calendered,  before  they  pass  from  the  hand 
of  the  manufacturer.     Stuffs  of  all  kinds,  made  of  ve- 
getable  fibres,  are  now  whitened  by  immersing  them 
in  a  solution  of  oxymuriate  of  lime.     Cotton  and  lin- 
en goods,  with  a  view  of  making  them  smooth  and 
glossy,  are  calendered,  or  pressed,  between  steel  roll- 
ers. 

23.  Many  of  the  fine  cottons  are  converted  into 
calicoes,  by  transferring  to  them  various  colors.    The 
process  by  which  this  is  done,  is  called  calico-print- 
ing, which  will  be  described  in  a  separate  article. 

24.  The  texture  of  the  fabrics  made  of  worsted,  or 
long  wool,  is  completed,  when  issued  from  the  loom. 
The  pieces  are  subsequently  dyed,  and  then  pressed 
between   heated   metallic  plates,  to  communicate  to 
them  the  required  gloss.     But  weaving  does  not  al- 
ways complete  the  texture  of  the  stuffs  made  of  the 
short  wools.     When  taken  from  the  loom,  the  web 
is  too  loose  and  open,  to  answer  the  purposes  to 


72     THE     MANUFACTURER      OF      CLOTH. 

which  such  cloths  are  usually  applied.     It  is,  there. 
fore,  submitted  to  another  process,  called  ful/ing. 

25.  Fulling,  in  common  with  almost  every  other 
operation  pertaining  to  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  con- 
stitutes a  separate  trade.     The  art  is  only  applied  to 
stuffs  composed  of  wool,  or  hair,  as  these  only  possess 
the  properties  which  render  it  applicable.     The  prac- 
ticability of  fulling  cloth  depends  on  a  certain  rough- 
ness  of  the  fibres,  which  admits  of  motion  in  one  way, 
and  retards  it  in  another.     This  may  be  more  fuliy 
understood  by  consulting  the  article  on  making  hats. 

26.  The  cloth,  having  been  prepared  by  a  proper 
cleansing,  is  deposited  in  a  strong  box,  with  a  quan- 
tity of  water  and  fuller's  earth  or  soap,  and  submitted 
to  the  action  of  the  pestles,  or  stampers,  which  are 
moved  in  a  horizontal  direction,  backwards  and  for- 
wards, by  means,  of  appropriate  machinery.      This 
operation  reduces  the  dimensions  of  the  cloth,  and 
greatly  improves  the  beauty  and  stability  of  the  tex- 
ture.    The  cloth  is  afterwards  dried  in  the  open  air 
on  frames  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

27.  After  the  cloth  has  been  dyed,  a  nap  is  raised 
on  one  side  of  it  by  means  of  the  common  teazle. 
The  nap  is  next  cut  off  to  an  even  surface.     This  was 
formerly  done  with  a  huge  pair  of  shears  ;  but,  with- 
in a  few  years,  it  has  most  commonly  been  effected 
by  a  machine,  the  essential  part  of  which  is  a  spiral 
Wade,  that   revolves  in   contact  with  another  blade, 
while  the  cloth  is  stretched  over  a  bed,  or  support, 
just  near  enough  for  the  projecting  filaments  to  be 
cut  off  at  a  uniform  length,  without  injuring  the  main 
texture.      Pressing  and  folding  the   cloth   complete 
the  whole  process. 

28.  A  great  proportion  of  the  woollen  fabrics  worn 
in  the  United  States,  are  manufactured  in  families, 
part  of  which  is  sent  to  the  clothiers  to  be  dressed. 
Much  cotton  yarn,  spun  at  the  manufactories,  is  pur- 


THE      MANUFACTURER      OF      CLOTH.     73 

chased  for  domestic  use.  Formerly,  the  raw  mate- 
rial  was  procured,  and  spun  into  yarn  on  the  big 
wheel.  Coarse  linens  are  also  extensively  manufac- 
tured in  families,  especially  among  the  German  pop. 
ulation. 

29.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  from  wool  was  in- 
troduced into  Britain  by  the  Romans,  some  time  in 
the  Augustan  age.     At  Winchester,  they  conducted 
the   business  on  a  scale  sufficiently  large  to  supply 
their  army.     After  the  Romans  withdrew  from  the 
island,  in  the  fifth  century,  the  art  was  comparatively 
neglected,  and  gradually  declined,  until  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.     This  monarch  invited  into  his  domin- 
ions workmen  from  Flanders,  in  which  country  the 
manufacture  had,  for  a  long  time,  been  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition. 

30.  Shortly  after  the  first  immigration  of  the  Flem- 
ish manufacturers  into  England,  an  act  was  passed 
prohibiting  the  wearing  of  cloths  made  in  any  other 
country  ;  and,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  the  manufac- 
ture had  become  so  extensive,  that  the  exportation  of 
the  raw  material  was  forbidden  by  law. 

31.  It  is  supposed  that  there  are  now,  in  Great 
Britain,  thirty  millions  of  sheep  ;   whose  annual  prod- 
uce of  wool  is  worth,  on  an  average,  about  seven 
millions  of  pounds  sterling  ;  to  this  may  be  added  five 
millions   of  pounds  weight  from  foreign  countries. 
This  amount  is  increased  in  value,  by  manufacturing* 
skill,  to  twenty  or  thirty  millions  of  pounds.     Not 
less  than  three  millions  of  persons  are  supposed  to  he 
employed  in  this  branch  of  British  industry. 

32.  Both  the  woollen  and  cotton  manufactures  havt 
arisen  to  great  importance,  of  late  years,  in  the  Uni 
ted  States ;    and,  from   the  mechanical  skill  of  oui 
countrymen,  the  abundance  of  the  raw  material,  and 
the  vast  amount  of  water-power,  there  is  every  rea. 


74     TUB      MANUFACTURER      OF      CLOTH. 

son  to  anticipate  a  rapid  and  continual  increase  in 
these  divisions  of  American  enterprise. 

THE    SILK- WORM. 

•  1.  Silk  is  the  production  of  a  worm,  of  the  cater- 
pillar  species,  which,  in  due  course,  passes  through 
several  transformations,  and  at  length  becomes  a 
butterfly,  like  others  of  the  genus.  It  is  produced 
from  an  egg,  and  when  about  to  die,  or  rather  again 
to  change  its  form,  spins  for  itself  an  envelope,  called 
#  cocoon.  The  worm  then  changes  to  a  chrysalis, 
and,  after  remaining  in  this  state  from  5  to  8  days, 
the  butterfly,  or  moth,  comes  out,  forcing  its  way 
through  the  cocoon.  The  moths,  or  butterflies,  eat 
nothing,  and  die  as  soon  as  they  have  provided  for 
the  propagation  of  their  species.  Enough  of  these 
are  suffered  to  come  to  maturity,  to  provide  a  suffi. 
cient  stock  of  eggs.  The  rest  are  killed,  in  a  few 
days  after  they  have  spun  their  task,  either  by  heat- 
ing them  in  an  oven,  or  by  exposing  them  to  the  rays 
of  the  sun. 

2.  The  fibres  are  wound  upon  a  reel.     To  render 
this  practicable,  the  cocoons  are  put  into  water  heat- 
ed to  a  suitable  temperature,  which  dissolves  the  gum- 
my substance  that  holds  the  fibres  together.     A  num- 
ber of  threads  being  detached,  and  passed  through  a 
hole  in  an  iron  bar,  form,  by  the  aid  of  the  remain- 
ing glutinous  matter,  one  thread,  which  is  wound  upon 
a  reel  into  skeins. 

3.  The  raw  silk,  thus  produced  and  prepared,  is 
sold  to  the  manufacturers,  who  twist  and  double  the 
fibres  variously,  and  finally  form  them  into  threads 
for  sewing ;  or  weave  them  into  a  great  variety  of 
fabrics,  which  are  too  well  known  to  need  particular 
description  here. 

4.  According  to  the  ancients,  the  silk-worm  was 
originally   a  native  of  China,  and   the   neighboring 


THE     MANUFACTURER      OF      CLOTH.     75 

parts  of  Asia,  and  had  there  been  domesticated  for  a 
long  time,  before  it  was  known  in  Europe.  For 
many  years  after  silk  was  sold  among  the  nations  of 
the  West,  even  the  merchants  were  ignorant  of  both 
the  manner  and  place  of  its  production. 

5.  The  Greeks  became  acquainted  with  silk,  soon 
after  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  and  the  Ro. 
mans  knew  little  of  the  article,  until  the    reign  of 
Augustus.     Dresses,  composed  entirely  of  this  ma- 
terial, were  seldom  worn  ;   but  the  fabrics  which  had 
been  closely  woven  in  the  East,  were  unravelled,  and 
the  threads  were  recomposed  in  a  looser  texture,  in- 
termixed  with  linen  or  woollen  yarn. 

6.  The  prodigal  Hehogabalus  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  individual,  in  the  Roman  empire,  who  wore  a 
robe  of  pure  silk.     It  is  also  stated,  that  the  Emperor 
Aurelian  refused  his  wife  a  garment  of  this  descrip- 
tion, on  account  of  its  exorbitant  price.     At  that  time, 
as  well  as  at  previous  periods,  it  usually  sold  for  its 
weight  in  gold. 

7.  A  kind  of  gauze,  originally  made  by  the  women 
on  the  island  of  Cos,  was  very  celebrated.     It  was 
dyed  purple,  with  the  substance  usually  employed  in 
communicating  that  colour  in  those  days  ;  but  this 
was  done  before  it  was  woven,  as  in  that  state  it  was 
too  frail  to  admit  of  the  process.     Habits,  made  of 
this   kind  of  stuff,  were   denominated    "dresses    of 
glass  :"  because  the  body  could  be  seen  through  them. 

8.  The  Roman  empire  had  been  supplied  with  silk 
through  the  medium  of  the  Persians,  until  the  time  of 
Justinian,  in  the  year  555.     This  emperor,  having 
become   indignant  at    the  rapacity  of  the  silk-mer- 
chants, determined,  if  possible,  to  supply  his  people 
from  the  insect  itself. 

9.  After  many  unsuccessful  attempts,  he  at  length 
obtained  a  small  quantity  of  the  eggs  from  India,  by 
the  assistance  of  two  Persian  monks,  who  had  con- 


76    THE     MANUFACTURER     OF     CLOTH. 

trived  to  conceal  them  in  the  hollow  of  their  canes. 
The  seeds  of  the  mulberry-tree,  on  the  leaves  of  which 
the  worm  feeds,  were  also  procured  at  the  same  time, 
together  with  instructions  necessary  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  worms. 

10.  For  six  hundred  years  after  the  period  just 
mentioned,  the  rearing  of  these  worms,  in  Europe, 
was  confined  to  the  Greek  empire  ;  but,  in  the  twelfth 
century,  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  introduced  it  into  that 
island,  whence  it  gradually  spread  into  Italy,  Spain, 
France,  and  other  European  countries. 

11.  The  silk- worm  was  introduced  into  England 
by  James  the  First ;  but  it  has  never  succeeded  well 
in  that  country,  on  account  of  the  dampness  and  cold, 
ness  of  the  climate.     The  manufacture  of  fabrics  from 
silk,  however,  is  there  very  extensive,  the  raw  mate- 
rial being  obtained,  chiefly,  from  Bengal  and  Italy. 
In  the  latter  of  these  countries,  in  France,  and  other 
parts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in  Asia,,  the  manufacture 
is  also  extensive. 

12.  Some  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  rearing  of 
silk-worms  in  the  United  States,  and  attempts  have 
been  made  to  introduce  the   manufacture  of  silks. 
The  mulberry  has  been  planted  in  various  parts  of 
the  Union ;  and  it  is  highly  probable,  that,  in  a  few 
years,  we  shall  be  able  to  obtain  excellent  silks,  with, 
out  sending  for  them  to  foreign  countries. 


THE   DYER,    AND    THE    CALICO-PRINTER. 


THE    DYER. 


1.  THE  art  of  dyeing  consists  in  impregnating  flex 
ible  fibres  with  any  color  which  may  be  desired,  in 
such  a  manner,  that  it  will  remain  permanent,  under 
the  common  exposures  to  which  it  may  be  liable. 

2.  The    union    of  the    coloring   matter  with   the 
fibres  receiving  the  dye,  is  purely  chemical,  and  not 
mechanical,  as  in  the  case  of  the  application  of  paints. 
Wool  has  the   greatest  attraction  for  coloring  sub- 
stances ;    silk  comes  next  to  it ;   then  cotton  ;  and, 
lastly,  hemp  and  flax.     These  materials,  also,  absorb 
dye-stufFs  in  different  proportions. 

3.  Previous  to  the  application  of  the  dye,  the  grea- 
sy substance  which  covers  the  fibres  of  wool,  and  the 
gluey  matter  on  those  of  silk,  are  removed  by  some 


78  T  H  E     D  Y  E  R. 

kind  of  alkali.  Their  natural  color  is,  also,  dischar- 
ged by  the  fumes  of  sulphur.  The  resinous  matter 
and  natural  color  of  cotton  and  linen,  are  removed 
by  bleaching. 

4.  The  materials  used  in  dyeing  are  divided  into 
two  classes — substantive  and  adjective.     The  former 
communicates  durable  tints  without  the   aid  of  any 
other  substance  previously  applied  ;    the    latter  re- 
quires  the  intervention  of  some  agent  which  possess, 
es   an  attraction  for  both   the    coloring    matter   and 
the  stuff  to  be  dyed,  in  order  to  make  the  color  per- 
manent.     The  substances  used  for  this  purpose  are 
usually  termed  mordants. 

5.  Agents  capable  of  acting  in  some  way  as  mor- 
dants,  are  very  numerous;    but  alumina,  alum,  the 
sulphate  or  acetate  of  iron,  the  muriate  of  tin,  and  nut- 
galls,  are  principally  employed.     The  mordant  not 
only   fixes  the  color,  but,  in  many  cases,  alters  and 
improves  the  tints.     It  is  always  dissolved  in  water, 
in  which  the  stuffs  are  immersed,  previous  to  the  ap- 
plication of  the  dye.      Dyeing  substances  are  also 
very  numerous  ;  but  a  few  of  the  most  important 
have,  in  practice,  taken  precedence  of  the  others. 

6.  Blue,  red,  yellow,  and  black,  are  the  chief  col- 
ors,  for  which  appropriate   coloring   substances   are 
applied  ;    but,   by  a  judicious   combination  of  these 
same  materials,  and  by  a  proper  application  of  mor- 
dants, intermediate  hues  of  every  shade  are  produced  ; 
thus,  a  green  is  communicated  by  forming  a  blue 
ground  of  indigo,  and  then  adding  a  yellow  by  means 
of  quercitron  bark. 

7.  The  Hue  dye  is  made  of  indigo  ;  the  red  dye,  of 
madder,  cochineal,  archil,  Brazil-wood,  or  safflovvers  ; 
the  yellow  dye,  of  quercitron  bark,  turmeric,  hickory, 
weld,  fustic,  or  saffron  ;  the  black  dye,  of  the  oxide  oi 
iron  combined  with  logwood,  or  the  bark  of  the  com- 
mon red,  or  soft  maple,  and  the  sulphate  or  acetute 


T  II  E     D  Y  E  R.  79 

of  iron.  The  dyes  made  of  some  of  these  substances 
require  the  aid  of  mordants,  and  those  from  others 
do  not. 

8.  In  communicating  the  intermediate  hues,  the 
different  dye-stuffs  forming  the  leading   colors,  are 
sometimes  mixed  ;  and,  at  other  times,  they  are  made 
into  separate  dyes,  and  applied  in  succession. 

9.  In  this  country,  the  business  of  the  dyer  is  often 
united   with    that  of  the    clothier ;    but,   where    the 
amount  of  business  will  justify  it,  as  in  manufactories, 
and  in  cities  or  large  towns,  it- is  a  separate  business. 
The  dyers  sometimes  confine  their  attention  to  par- 
ticular branches.     Some  dye  wool  only  or  silk,  while 
others  confine  themselves  to  certain  colors,  such  as 
scarlet  and  blue.     The  principal  profits  of  the  dyer, 
when  unconnected  with  manufacturing  establishments, 
arise  from  dyeing  garments  or  stuffs  which  have  been 
partly  worn. 

10.  The  origin  of  the  art  of  dyeing  is  involved  in 
great  obscurity,  as  the  ancients  have  not  furnished 
even  a  fable,  which  might  guide  us  incur  researches. 
It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  art  must  have  made 
considerable  progress,  long  before  authentic  history 
begins.     Moses  speaks  of  stuffs  dyed  blue,  purple, 
and  scarlet,  and  of  sheep-skins  dyed  red.     The  know- 
ledge  of  the  preparation  of  these   colors,  implies  an 
advanced  state  of  the  art,  at  that  early  period. 

11.  Purple  was  the  favorite  color  of  the  ancients, 
and  appears  to  have  been  the  first  which  was  brought 
to  a  state  of  tolerable  perfection.     The  discovery  of 
the  mode  of  communicating  it,  is  stated  to  have  been 
accidental.     A  shepherd's  dog,  while  on  the  sea-shore, 
incited  by  hunger,  broke  a  shell,  the  contents  of  which 
stained  his  mouth  with  a  beautiful   purple;  and  the 
circumstance  suggested  the  application  of  the  shell- 
fish, as   a   coloring   substance.      This    discoveiy  is 


SO  THE     DYER. 

thought  to  have  been  made   about  fifteen  hundred 
years  before  the  advent  of  Christ. 

12.  The  Jews  esteemed  this  color  so  highly,  that 
they  consecrated  it  especially  to  the  service  of  the 
Deity,  using  it  in  stuffs  for  decorating  the  tabernacle, 
and   for  the    sacred  vestments  of  the    high-priests. 
The  Babylonians  and  other  idolatrous  nations  clothed 
their  idols  in  habits  of  purple,  and  even  supposed  this 
color  capable  of  appeasing  the  wrath  of  the  gods. 

13.  A.mojig  the  heathen  nations  of  antiquity  gen- 
erally, purple  was  appropriated  to  the  use  of  kings 
and  princes,  to  the  exclusion  of  their  subjects.     In 
Rome,  at  a  later  period,  purple  habits  were  worn  by 
the  chief  officers  of  the  republic,  and,  at  length,  by  the 
opulent,  until  the    emperors  reserved  to  themselves 
the  distinguished  privilege. 

14.  There  were  several  kinds  of  shell-fish,  from 
which  this  coloring  substance  was  obtained,  each  of 
which  communicated  a  shade  somewhat  different  from 
the  others.     The  kind  collected  near  Tyre  was  the 
best ;  and  hence  the  Tyrian  purple  acquired  especial 
celebrity.     So  highly  was  it  esteemed  by  the  Romans, 
in  the  time  of  Augustus,  that  wool  imbued  with  this 
color  was  sold  for  one  thousand  denarii  per  pound, 
which,  in  our  currency,  amounts  to  one  hundred  and 
sixty-eight  dollars. 

15.  After  all,  the   boasted  purple  of  antiquity  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  very  inferior  dye,  when  com- 
pared with  many  which  we  now  possess  ;  and  this  is 
only  one    among   many  instances,  wherein  modern 
science  has  given  us  a  decided  superiority  over  the 
ancients. 

16.  The  color,  second  in  repute  with  the  people 
of  antiquity,  was  scarlet.     This  color  was  commu- 
nicated by  means  of  an  insect,  called  coccus,  and  which 
is   now  denominated  kermes.     Besides   the  various 
hues  of  purple  and  scarlet,  several  others  were  in 


THE     DYER.  81 

some  degree  of  favor  ;  such  as  green,  orange,  and 
blue.  The  use  of  vegetable  dyes  appears  to  have 
been  but  little  known  to  the  Romans ;  but  the  Gauls 
had  the  knowledge  of  imparting  various  colors,  even 
the  purple  and  scarlet,  with  the  juice  of  certain  herbs. 

17.  The  irruption  of  the  northern  barbarians  into 
the  Roman  empire,  destroyed  this,  with  the  rest  of 
the  arts  of  civilization,  in  the  western  parts  of  Eu- 
rope  ;   but,  having  been  preserved,  more  or  less,  in 
the  East,  it  was  again  revived  in  the  West,  principal- 
ly  by  means  of  the  intercourse  arising  from  the  Cru- 
sades. 

18.  Although  indigo  seems  to  have  been   known 
to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  yet  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  used  for  dyeing.     The  first  that 
was  applied  to  this  purpose  in  Europe,  was  brought 
from  India  by  the  Dutch  ;  but  its  general  use  was  not 
established  without  much  opposition  from  interested 
individuals.     It  was  strictly  prohibited  in  England, 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and,  about  the  same  time, 
in  Saxony.     Many  valuable  acquisitions  were  made 
to  the  materials  employed  in  this  art,  on  the  discovery 
of  America,  among  which  may  be  enumerated,  coch- 
ineal, logwood,  Brazil-wood,  and  Nicaragua,  together 
with  the  soft  maple  and  quercitron  barks. 

19.  The  first  book  on  the  art  of  dyeing  was  pub- 
lished in  1429.     This,  of  course,  appeared  in  man- 
uscript, as  the   art  of  printing  had   not  then   been 
discovered.     An  edition  was  printed  in  1510.     The 
authors  to  whom  the  world  is  most  indebted  for  cor- 
rect information  on  this  subject,  are  Dufuy,  Hallet, 
Macquir,  and  Berthollet,  of  France ;  and  Henry  and 
Bancroft,  of  England  ;  all  of  whom  wrote  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century. 

G 


82  THE     CALICO-PRINTER. 


THE   CAUCO-PRINTER. 

1.  Calico-printing  is  a  combination  of  the  arts  of 
dyeing,  engraving,  and  printing,  wherewith  colors  are 
applied  in  definite  figures.     This  art  is  applicable  to 
woven  fabrics,  and  chiefly  to  those  of  which  the  ma- 
terial is  cotton. 

2.  The  first  object,  after  preparing  the  stuffs,  as  in 
dyeing,  is  to  apply  a  mordant  to  those  parts  of  the 
piece  which  are  to  receive  the  color.     This  is  now 
usually  done  by  means  of  a  steel  or  copper  cylinder, 
on  which  have  been  engraved  the  proposed  figures, 
as  on  plates  for  copperplate-printing. 

3.  During  the  printing,  the  cylinder,  in  one  part  of 
its  revolution,  becomes  charged  with  the   mordant, 
the   superfluous    part  of  which  is  scraped   off  by  a 
straight  steel  edge,  leaving  only  the  portion  which 
fills   the    lines  of  the  figures.     As  the  cylinder  re- 
volves,  the  cloth  comes  into  forcible  contact  with  it, 
and  receives  the  complete  impression  of  the  figures, 
in  the  pale  color  of  the  mordant. 

4.  The  cloth,  after  having  been  washed  and  dried, 
is  passed  through  the  coloring  lath,  in  which  the  parts 
previously  printed,  become  permanently  dyed  with  the 
intended  color.     Although  the  whole  piece  receives 
the  dye,  yet,  by  washing  the  cloth,  and  bleaching  it  on 
the  grass  in  the  open  air,  the  color  is  discharged  from 
those  parts  not  impregnated  with  the  mordant. 

5.  By  the  use  of  different  mordants,  successively 
applied,  and  a  single  dye,  several  colors  are  often 
communicated  to  the  same  piece  of  cloth ;   thus,  if 
stripes  are  first  made  with  the  acetate  of  alumina,  and 
then  others  with  the  acetate  of  iron,  a  coloring  bath 
pf  madder  will  produce  red  and  brown  stripes.     The 
same  mordants,  with  a  dye  of  quercitron  bark,  give 
yellow  and  olive  or  drab. 

6.  Sometimes,  the  second  mordant  is  applied  by 


THE     CALIC  O-P  R  I  N  T  E  R.  83 

means  of  engravings  on  wooden  blocks.  Cuts,  de- 
signed  for  this  purpose,  are  engraved  on  the  side  of 
the  grain,  and  not  on  the  end,  like  those  for  printing 
books. 

7.  Calico-printing,  so  far  as  chemical  affinities  are 
concerned,  is  the  same  with  dyeing.     The  difference 
consists,  chiefly,  in  the  mode  of  applying  the  mate- 
rials,  so  as  to  communicate  the  desired  tints  and  fig. 
ures.     The  dye-stuffs,  most  commonly  employed  by 
calico-printers,  are  indigo,  madder,  and  quercitron 
bark  ;    by  a  dexterous  application  of  these  and  the 
mordants,  a  great  variety  of  colors  can  be  produced. 
Indigo,  being  a  substantive  color,  does  not  require 
the  aid  of  mordants,  but,  like  them,  when  other  dyes 
are  used,  is  applied  directly  to  the  cloth,  sometimes 
by  the  engraved  cylinder  or  block,  and  at  others  with 
the  pencil  by  hand. 

8.  Calico-printing  was  practised  in  India  twenty, 
two  centuries  ago,  when  Alexander  the  Great  visited 
that  country  with  his  victorious  a'rmy.     The  opera- 
tion  was  then  performed  with  a  pencil.     This  method 
is  still  used  in  the  East  to  the  exclusion  of  every  oth- 
er.    The  art  was  also  practised  in  Egypt  in  Pliny's 
time. 

9.  Calicoes  were  first  brought  to  England  in  the 
year  1631.     They  derive  their  name  from  the  city 
of  Calicut,  whence  they  were  first  exported  to  Eu- 
rope.     This  branch  of  business  was  introduced  into 
London   in  the   year  1676.     Since  that  time,  it  has 
been  encouraged  by  several  acts  of  Parliament  ;  but 
it  never  became  extensive  in  England,  until  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  for  spinning  cotton.     It  is  sup- 
posed, that  the  amount  of  cottons  annually  printed 
in  the  United  States,  cannot  be  less  than  twenty  mil. 
uons  of  yards 


THEHATTER.  . 

1.  THE  business,  peculiar  to  the  hatter,  consists  in 
making  hats  from  the  fur  or  hair  of  animals,  by  the 
process  called  felting.     The  hair  of  animals  is  the 
only  material  which  can  be  firmly  matted  together  in 
this  way  ;  yet,  that  of  every  animal  is  not  suitable  for 
this  purpose.     The  fur  of  the  beaver,  the  otter,  the 
seal,  the  muskrat,  the  rabbit,  the  hare,  the  coney,  and 
the  nutria,  together  with  the  wool  of  the  lama,  sheep, 
and  camel,  are  employed  to  the  exclusion  of  almost 
every  other. 

2.  The  skin  of  all  animals  having  fur,  is  covered 
with  two  kinds  of  hair ;  the  one,  long  and  coarse ; 
the  other,  short,  fine,  and  thickly  set.     The  coarse 
hair  is  pulled  out  from  the  skin,  by  the  aid  of  a  shoe- 
knife,  and  thrown  away,  while  the  fine,  which  is  the 


THE     HATTER  85 

fur,  is  cut  from  it  with  one  of  a  circular  form,  such 
as  the  saddlers  and  harness-makers  use  in  cutting 
leather. 

3.  In  the  application  of  the  materials,  the  first  ob- 
ject of  the  hatter  is  to  make  the  body.     In  the  com- 
mon three,  four,  and  five  dollar  hats,  the  body  is  com- 
posed of  the  wool  of  the  sheep  ;  but,  in  those  of  great- 
er value,  it  is  usually  made  of  the  wool  of  the  lama, 
and  different  kinds  of  cheap  furs.     In  describing  the 
process  of  making  hats,  one  of  the  latter  kind  will  be 
selected. 

4.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  the  materials  for  the 
body  is  weighed  out,  and  divided  into  two  equal  parts. 
One  of  these  is  placed  on  a  table,  or,  as  the  hatters 
call  it,  a  hurl.     The  individual  hairs  composing  this 
portion,  are  separated,  and  lightly  and  regularly  spread 
out  into  a  proper  form,  by  the  vibrations  of  a  bow- 
string, which  is  plucked  with'a  wooden  pin. 

5.  The  fur  is  then  carefully  compressed  with  a  flat 
piece  of  wicker-work,  denominated  a  hatter's  basket, 
and  covered  with  a  damp  piece  of  linen  cloth,  in  which 
it  is  afterwards  folded,  pressed,  and  worked,  with  the 
hands,  until  it  becomes  matted  together  into  a  bat. 
This  bat  is  next  folded  over  a  triangular  piece  of  pa- 
per, and  formed  into  a  conical  cap. 

6.  When  another  bat  has  been  made  in  the  same 
way,  from  the  other  half  of  the  materials,  the  two  are 
put  together  to  form  one,  which  is  then  worked  in  the 
damp  cloth  as  before,  until  it  is  much  contracted  and 
matted  together.      After  this,  having  been  con-veyed 
to  another  room,  it  is  rolled  in  a  woollen  cloth,  press- 
ed, rubbed,  and  worked,  with  the  hands  and  a  rolling, 
pin,  around  a  kettle  of   hot  water,  into  which   it  is 
often  plunged  during  the  operation,  which  is  called 
planking. 

7.  In  this  way,  the  materials  are  consolidated  into 
felt,  and  the  body  contracted  to  the  proper  size.     T*he  * 


86  T  H  E     H  A  T  T  E  R. 

reason  why  the  process  just  described  produces  this 
effect,  may  be  found  in  the  nature  of  the  fibres  them- 
selves.  Upon  a  close  examination,  it  will  be  observ- 
ed, that  these  are  covered  with  little  scales,  or  beards, 
which  admit  of  motion  in  one  direction,  but  retard  if, 
in  the  other.  This  peculiar  formation  causes  them 
to  interlock  in  such  a  way  as  to  become  closely  mat- 
ted  together. 

8.  When  the  body  has  been  dried,  and  shaved  on 
the  knee  with  a  sharp  knife,  to  free  it  from  projecting 
filaments,  it  is  stiffened  with  gum-shellac  dissolved  in 
alcohol,  and  then  steamed  in  a  box,  to  cause  the  stif- 
fening to  set.     It  is  now  prepared  for  being  napped. 

9.  The  fur  for  the  nap  is  prepared  on  the  hurl,  like 
the  conical  cap  first  described.     In  applying  the  nap 
to  the  body,  the  latter  is  wet  with   hot  water,  and 
flakes  of  the  former  are  matted  down   upon  it,  by 
working  it  on  the  planks  around  the  kettle.     After 
three  layers  have  been  put  on  in  this  way,  the  cap  is 
beaten,  while  wet,  with  sticks,  to  raise  the  nap,  and 
then  drawn  over  a  cylindrical  block,  which  gives  it 
the  general  form  of  a  hat. 

10.  The  nap  having  been  raised  with  a  card,  the 
hat  is  prepared  to  be  colored.     The  dye  is  made,  chief- 
ly, of  the  extract  of  logwood,  copperas,  and  verdigris. 
The  hats,  to  the  number  of  forty-eight  or  more,  are 
hung  upon  a  wheel  by  means  of  pegs,  which  pass 
through  the  centre  of  the  blocks.     This  wheel  can  be 
turned,  so  as  to  keep  one  half  of  the  hats  alternately 
in  the  dye.      After  having  been  properly  colored, 
they  are  taken  from  the  blocks,  washed,  and  dried. 

11.  The  hat  is  now  prepared  for  the  finisher,  who 
first  whips  up  the  nap  with  a  ratan,  and,  after  having 
rendered  it  pliable  with  steam,  draws  it  over  the  fin- 
ishing block.    The  fibres  composing  the  nap,  are  prop- 
erly disposed  with  a  card  and  brush,  and  rendered 
smooth  and  glossy  by  means  of  a  hot  iron.     The  au 


THEHATTER.  87 

perfluous  part  of  the  rim  is  cut  off  with  a  blade,  placed 
in  a  gauge.  The  hat  is  finished  by  adding  suitable 
trimmings,  the  nature  of  which,  and  the  mode  of  ap- 
plication, can  be  easily  learned  by  examining  differ, 
ent  kinds  of  hats. 

12.  Hats  of  various  colors  have  been  worn  ;  but 
those  most  in  use  are  biuck,  white,  and  drab.     The 
white  hats,  which  are  intended  only  for  ladies  and 
children,  have  a  nap  of  rabbits'  fur,  selected  from  the 
white  skins.     Drab  hats  are  also  made  of  stuffs  of 
the  natural  color,  assorted  for  that  purpose. 

13.  The  value  of  hats  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 
workmanship,  and  the  cost  of  the  materials  used  in 
the  manufacture.     So  great  is  the  difference  in  these 
respects,  that  their  price  ranges  between  seventy-five 
cents  and  fifteen  dollars.     The  woollen  bodies  used 
by  hatters  are  now  often  procured  from  persons,  who 
devote  their  attention  exclusively  to  their  manufac- 
ture. 

14.  Several  years  ago,  woollen  cloths  were  made  in 
England,  by  the  process  of  felting  ;  but,  on  trial,  they 
were  found  to  be  deficient  in  firmness  and  durability. 
Since  the  year  1840,  an  American  citizen  has  been 
manufacturing  cloths  by  this  method ;   but,  whether 
they  are  liable  to  the  objection  just  mentioned,  is  yet 
uncertain. 

15.  Some  kind  of  covering  for  the  head,  either  for 
defence  or  ornament,  appears  to  have  been  usually 
worn  in  all  ages  and  countries,  where  the  inhabitants 
have  made  the  least  progress  in  the  arts  of  civilized 
life. 

16.  The  form,  substance,  and  color,  of  this  article 
of  dress,  have  been  exceedingly  various  in  different 
ages,  according  to  the  circumstances  or  humor  of  the 
wearer.     The  ancient  Persians  wore  turbans,  similar 
to  those  of  the  modern  Turks ;  and  the  nations  in- 
habiting the  Indian  Peninsula,  wore  a  kind  of  head- 


88  THE     HATTER. 

dress  so  large,  that  it  divested  the  person  of  all  pro- 
portion. 

17.  The  imperial  turban  is  s?.id  to  have  been  com- 
posed  of  a  great  many  yards  of  muslin,  twisted  and 
formed  into  a  shape  nearly  oval,  and  surmounted  with 
a  woollen  cap,  encircled  with  a  radiated  crown.     The 
turban  of  the  prime  minister  was  smaller  in  its  di- 
mensions, but  of  greater  altitude.     The  chief  magi, 
on  account  of  his  superior  eminence,  wore  a  higher 
turban  than  those  of  the  monarch  and  minister  united. 
Those  worn  by  the  inferior  magi,  were  regulated  by 
the  dignity  of  the  stations  which  they  held. 

18.  The  Jewish  people  and  the  neighboring  nations 
borrowed  the  turban  from  the  Persians  ;  but,  at  a  la- 
ter  period,  they  very  commonly  adopted  the  cap  which 
the  Romans  were  accustomed  to  give  to  their  slaves, 
on  their  manumission. 

19.  The  ancient  helmet,  made  of  steel,  brass,  and 
sometimes  of  more  costly  materials,  was  worn  as  a 
piece  of  defensive  armor  in  war,  instead  of  the  ordi- 
nary coverings,  used  while  engaged  in  peaceful  oc- 
cupations. 

20.  Roman  citizens  went  bare-headed,  except  upon 
occasions  of  sacred  rites,  games,  and  festivals  ;    or 
when  engaged  in  travelling  or  in  war.     They  were 
accustomed,  however,  in  the  city,  to  throw  over  their 
head  the  lappet  of  their  toga,  as  a  screen  from  the 
wind  or  sun.     The  people  of  Scotland  used  to  wear 
a  kind  of  bonnet,  as  in  some  parts  of  that  country 
they  do  at  the  present  time  ;  and  the  English,  before 
the  invention  of  felt  hats,  covered  the  head  with  knit 
caps  and  cloth  hoods,  and  sometimes  with  hats  made 
of  thrummed  silk. 

21.  The  Chinese  do  not  wear  hats,  but  use  a  cap 
of  peculiar  structure,  which  the  laws  of  civility  will 
not  allow  them  to  put  off  in  public.      The  form  and 
material  of  this  is  varied  with  the  change  of  tho  sea- 


THE      HATTER.  89 

son.  That  used  in  summer  is  shaped  like  a  cone,  is 
made  of  a  beautiful  kind  of  mat,  and  lined  with  satin  ; 
to  this  is  added,  at  the  top,  a  large  tuft  of  red  silk, 
which  falls  all  round  to  the  lower  part  of  the  cap,  and 
which  fluctuates  gracefully  on  all  sides,  while  the 
wearer  is  in  motion.  The  kind  worn  in  winter  is 
made  of  shaggy  cloth,  bordered  with  some  kind  of 
fur,  and  ornamented  in  a  similar  manner. 

22.  Head-dresses,  from   their  variety,  simplicity, 
and  mutability,  were  but  little  regulated  by  commer- 
cial or  manufacturing  interests,  until  the  introduction 
of  felt  hats,  which  has  occasioned  a  uniformity  in  this 
article  of  dress,  unknown  in  former  ages. 

23.  Curiosity  is  naturally  excited  to   become  ac- 
quainted with  the  particulars  of  the  invention  of  the 
hat,  and  the  subsequent  stages  of  improvement  in  the 
manufacture.     But  the  operation  of  individual  inter- 
est, so  generally  connected  with  the  useful  arts,  seems 
to  have  concealed  the  whole  in  obscurity ;  and  little 
information  on  the  subject  can  now  be  obtained. 

24.  The  hatters  have  a  tradition,  that  the  art  of 
felting  originated  with  St.  Clement,  the  fourth  bishop 
of  Rome.     Under  this  impression,  in  Catholic  coun- 
tries, they  adopt  him  as  their  patron  saint,  and  hold  an 
annual  festival  in  his  honor.     The  principle  of  felting 
is  said  to  have  been  suggested  to  his  mind  by  the 
following  circumstance ;  while  fleeing  from  his  per- 
secutors, his  feet  became  blistered,  and,  to  obtain  re- 
lief, he  placed  wool  between  them  and  his  sandals. 
On  continuing  his  journey,  the  wool,  by  the  perspira- 
tion, motion,  and  pressure  of  the  feet,  assumed  a  com- 
pact  form. 

25.  Notwithstanding  this  tradition,  it  appears,  that 
felt  hats  were  invented  at  Paris,  by  a  Swiss,  about 
the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  but  they 
were  not  generally  known,  until  Charles  the  Seventh 
made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Rouen,  in  the  year 


90  THEHATTER. 

1492,  when  he  astonished  the  people  by  wearing  a 
hat,  lined  with  red  silk,  and  surmounted  with  a  plume 
of  feathers. 

26.  When  some  of  the  clergy  first  adopted  this  ar- 
ticle of  dress,  it  was  considered  an  unwarrantable  in- 
dulgence.    Councils  were  held,  and  regulations  pub- 
lished, forbidding  any  priest  or  monk  to  appear  abroad 
wearing  a  hat ;  and  enjoining  them  to  keep  to  the  use 
of  chaperons,  or  hoods,  made  of  black  cloth,  with  de- 
cent cornets  ;  if  they  were  poor,  they  were,  at  least 
to  have  cornets  fastened  to  their  hats,  upon  penalty 
of  suspension  and  excommunication. 

27.  At  length,  however,  the  pope  permitted  even 
the  cardinals  to  wear  hats  ;  but,  enjoined  them  to 
wear  those  6*f  a  red  color  at  public  ceremonials,  in 
token  of  their  readiness  to  spill  their  blood  for  their 
religion. 

28.  In  England,  considerable  opposition  was  made 
to  the  use  of  the  hat.     By  a  statute,  enacted  in  the 
thirteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  every  per- 
son between  certain  ages  was  obliged,  on  Sundays 
and  holidays,  to  wear  a  woollen  cap,  made  by  some 
of  the  cappers  of  that  kingdom,  under  the  penalty  of 
three  shillings  and  four-pence  for  every  day's  neglect. 
This  law  continued  in  force,  for  about  twenty-five 
years.     The  manufacture  of  hats  was  commenced,  in 
England,  in  the  time  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  by  Dutch- 
men  and  Spaniards. 

29.  Hats  made  of  plaited  straw,  grass,  or  chip,  are 
much  used  in  the  summer ;  and  caps  of  cloth  or  fur 
are  now  frequently  substituted  for  hats,  in  cold  weath- 
er.    Silk  hats  have  also  been  much  worn,  since  the 
year  1825.     They  are  made  of  the  common  hat  body, 
and  a  texture  of  silk  with  a  long  nan.     The  silk  is 
fastened  to  the  body  with  glue. 


THE   ROPE-MAKER. 

1.  ROPES  may  be  made  of  any  vegetable  substance 
which  has  a  fibre  sufficiently  flexible  and  tenacious. 
The  Chinese  and  other  orientals,  in  making  ropes, 
use  the  ligneous  parts  of  certain  bamboos  and  reeds, 
the  fibrous  covering  of  the  cocoa-nut,  the  filaments  of 
the  cotton  pod,  and  the  leaves  of  certain  grasses  ;  but 
the  bark  of  plants  and  trees,  is  the  most  productive 
of  fibrous  matter  suitable  to  this  manufacture.     That 
of  the  linden-tree,  the  willow,  and  the  bramble  is  fre- 
quently used.     In  Europe  and  America,  however,  the 
fibres  of  hemp  and  flax  are  more  frequently  employ- 
ed, for  this  purpose,  than  any  other  material. 

2.  The  operations  of  rope-making  are  commonly 
performed  in  rope-walks,  which  are  sometimes  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length.     These  are  usual- 


92  T  H  E     R  O  P  E-M  A  K  E  R. 

Iy  covered  with  a  slight  shed,  the  nature  and  appear- 
ance of  which  are  well  exhibited  in  the  preceding 
picture. 

3.  The  first  part  of  the  process  consists  in  spin- 
ning the  material  into  yarn.     The  principle  on  which 
this  's  effected,  is  the  same  as  that  by  which  cotton 
or  wool  is  drawn  out  and  twisted  into  threads,  al- 
though the  machinery,  and  the  mode  of  operating,  are 
different. 

4.  The  kind  of  wheel  employed  in  spinning  rope- 
yarn,  is  also  exhibited  in  the  cut.     A  band  passes 
around  the  periphery,  and  over  the  semicircle  above 
it,  in  which  is  placed  a  number  of  wheels,  the  pivots 
of  which   terminate,  on   the   other  side,  in  a  small 
hook. 

5.  The  spinner,  having  a  quantity  of  the  material 
properly  disposed  about  the  waist,  attaches  a  number 
of  fibres  to  one  of  the  hooks,  which,  being  put  in  mo- 
tion by  the  band  passing  over  the  whirl,  twists  them 
rapidly  into  yarn.     The  part  already  twisted  draws 
along  with  it  more  fibres  from  the  bundle,  and,  as  the 
spinner  is  regulating  their  uniform  arrangement,  he 
walks  backward  towards  the  other  end  of  the  walk. 

6.  When  the  thread  has  been  spun  to  the  proposed 
length,  the  spinner  cries  out  to  another,  who  imme- 
diately takes  it  off  from  the  hook,  gives  it  to  a  third 
person,  and,  in  turn,  attaches  his  own  fibres  to  the 
same  hook.     In  the  meantime,  the  first  spinner  keeps 
fast  hold  of  the  end  of  his  yarn,  to  prevent  it  from 
untwisting  or  doubling ;  and,  as  it  is  wound  on  the 
reel,  proceeds  up  the  walk,  keeping  the  yarn  of  an 
equal  tension  throughout. 

7.  The  second  part  of  the  process  consists  in  form- 
ing the  yarn  into  various  kinds  of  ropes.     The  com- 
ponent parts  of  cordage  are  called  strands  ;  and  the 
operation  of  uniting  them  with  a  permanent  twist,  is 


THE     R  0  P  E-M  A  K  E  R.  93 

called  laying,  when  applied  to  small  ropes,  and  closing, 
when  applied  to  cables  or  other  large  ropes. 

8.  The  simplest  twist  is  formed  of  two  strands. 
The  thread  used  by  sail-makers,  and  pack-thread,  fur- 
nish examples  of  this  kind ;   but  cordage  with  two 
strands  is  not  much  used  ;  that  with  three  is  the  most 
usual.      Lines  and  cords  less  than  one  and  a  half 
inches  in  circumference,  are  laid  by  means  of  the 
spinning-wheel.     Preparatory  to  this  operation,  the 
workman  fastens  the  hither  end  of  the  yarns  to  sep- 
arate whirl-hooks,  and  the  remote  ends  to  the  hook 
of  a  swivel,  called  the  loper. 

9.  The  strands  having  been  properly  distended,  the 
spinning-wheel  is  turned  in  the  same  direction  as  when 
twisting  the  yarns.     A  further  twisting  of  the  strands, 
during  this  part  of  the  process,  is  prevented  by  the 
motion  of  the  loper,  which  gives  way  to  the  strain, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  causes  the  strands  to  entwine 
about  each  other,  and  form  a  cord.     To  prevent  them 
from  entwining  too  rapidly,  an  instrument  is  inter- 
posed, which,  from  its  form,  is  called  the  top.     It  has 
two  or  more  notches,  which  terminate  at  the  apex, 
and  a  handle,  called  a  staff.     As  the  top  is  moved 
from  the  loper  to  the  wheel,  it  regulates  the  degree 
of  twist  which  the  cord  or.rope  is  to  receive. 

10.  The  principle  on  which  large  cordage  is  laid, 
or  closed,  is  the  same,  although  some  part  of  the  ma- 
chinery is  different.     The  strands  for  large  ropes  and 
cables  are  formed  of  many  yarns,  and  require  consid- 
erable hardening.     This  cannot  be  done  with  whirls 
driven  by  a  wheel-band  ;  it  requires  the  power  of  a 
crank,  turned  by  hand,  or  by  some  other  considerable 
force.     The  strands,  also,  when  properly  hardened, 
become  very  stiff,  and,  when  bent  round  the  top,  can- 
not transmit  force  enough  to  close  the  unpliant  rope  : 
it  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  the  loper,  also,  be  mo. 
ved  by  a  crank. 


94  T  H  E     R  O  P  E-M  A  K  E  R. 

11.  Cordage,  which  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  alter, 
nate  action  of  air  and  water,  is  usually  tarred.     The 
application  of  this  substance  is  made,  in  most  cases, 
while  the  material  is  in  a  state  of  yarn.     In  effecting 
this  object,  the  threads  are  drawn  through  boiling  tar, 
and  then  passed  between  rollers,  or  through  holes  sur- 
rounded with  oakum,  to  remove  the  superfluous  tar. 
In  like   manner,  ropes   and  cables  are  superficially 
tarred. 

12.  Various  improvements  have  been  made  in  the 
machinery,  for  performing  the  different  operations  of 
rope-making  ;  but,  these  not  having  been  generally 
adopted,  it  is  unnecessary  to  notice  them  more  par- 
ticularly ;  especially,  as  they  do  not  affect  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  the  art. 

13.  Within  a  few  years,  cotton-yarn  has  been  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  ropes  ;  but  this  material 
has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  tested,  to  determine  its 
fitness  for  the  purpose.     A  kind  of  vegetable  fibre, 
brought  from  Manilla,  and  hence  called  Manilla  hemp, 
is  very  extensively  applied  in  making  ropes,  and,  for 
some  purposes,  is  preferred  to  other  materials. 

14.  The   intestines  of  animals  are  composed  of 
very  powerful  fibres,  and  those  of  sheep  and  lambs 
are  manufactured  into  what  is  called  cat-gut,  for  the 
use    of  musical   instrument-makers,   hatters,  watch- 
makers, and   a  variety  of  other  artificers.     Animal 
hair,  as  that  from  the  tail   and   mane  of  horses,  is 

.  frequently  employed  as  the  material  for  ropes ;  and 
euch  are  durable,  elastic,  and  impervious  to  moisture. 
They,  however,  are  not  applicable  in  cases,  where  the 
rope  is  subject  to  considerable  friction. 

15.  Hemp   is  cultivated  in  various  parts   of  the 
world,  and  especially  in  Russia,  whence  it  is  export- 
ed to  other  countries  in  great  quantities.     It  is  also 
produced,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  the  state  of  Ken- 
tucky, and  in  many  other  parts  of  the  United  States. 


THE     R  0  P  E-M  A  K  E  R.  95 

Flax  is  still  more  generally  cultivated  than  hemp ; 
but  its  chief  application  is  to  the  manufacture  of  cloth, 
as  it  does  not  answer  well  for  any  cordage  larger 
than  a  bed-cord.  The  formation  of  cloth  from  hemp 
is  also  very  common  ;  and,  in  this  case,  the  yarn  for 
the  coarse  cloths  is  spun  on  the  rope-maker's  wheel 
in  the  manner  already  described.  The  cloth  is  gen- 
erally used  for  making  bags,  sacking-bottoms  for  beds, 
and  sails  for  vessels. 

16.  Rope-making  is  a  manufacture  of  general  util- 
ity, as  cordage  of  some  kind  is  used  more  or  less  in 
every  family  in  all  civilized  communities  ;  nor  are 
there  many  trades  capable  of  being  carried  on,  with 
convenience,  without  it.     But  the  great  utility  of  cord- 
age, in  all  its  varieties,  is  most  conspicuous  in  the 
rigging  and  equipment  of  vessels  ;  and  the  extensive 
demand  for  it,  in  this  application,  renders  rope-ma- 
king one  of  the  most  important  and  extensive  of  the 
primitive  trades. 

17.  Nor  does  the  utility  of  cordage  end  with  its 
application  to  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  originally 
designed.     Old  ropes  are  converted  into  oakum  by 
untwisting  and  picking  them  to  pieces.     The  oakum 
thus  produced  is  driven  into  the  seams  of  vessels,  to 
render  them  water-tight. 

18.  As  regards  the  invention  of  this  art,  nothing 
can  be   gathered  from  ancient  records.     We  only 
know,  in  general,  that  cordage  was.  in  considerable 
use  among  the  nations  of  antiquity,  especially  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who  probably  learned  its  ap. 
plication  to  rigging  vessels  from  the  PhoBnicians. 


THE    TAILOR. 

1.  THE  business  of  the  tailor  consists,  principally, 
in  cutting  out  and  making  clothes  for  men  and  boys, 
together  with  habits  and  cloaks  for  ladies.     It  is  usu- 
al for  persons  who  carry  on  this  business  in  cities  and 
large  towns,  to  keep  a  stock  of  cloths  and  other  stuffs 
adapted  to  the  season,  which  they  make  up  into  gar. 
ments  to  the  order  of  customers.     In  such  cases,  they 
are  termed  merchant  tailors. 

2.  The  operation,  preparatory  to  cutting  out  tha 
cloth  for  a  garment,  is  that  of  taking  the  measure  of 
the  person  for  whom  it  is  designed.     This  is  dono 
with  a  narrow  strip  of  paper  or  parchment,  and  the 
dimensions  are  either  marked  on  the  measure  with 
the  scissors,  or  entered  in  a  pattern-look  kept  for  the 
purpose. 


T  II  E      T  A  I  L  O  R.  97 

3.  The  cloth  is  cut  to  the  proper  shape,  with  a 
.arge  pair  of  shears.     This  is  performed  either  by 
the  individual  who  carries  on  the  business,  or  by  a 
foreman.      The  parts  are  sewed  together,  and  the 
trimmings  applied,  by  means  of  thread  and  silk  ;  this 
is  commonly  done  by  those  who  devote  their  attention 
to  this  branch  of  the  trade.     It  sometimes  happens, 
however,  that  the  same  person  performs  the  whole 
of  the  work,  particularly  in  country  places,  where  the 
business  is  very  limited  in  extent. 

4.  Females  often  serve  an  apprenticeship  to  this 
business.     Many  of  them  learn  to  cut  out,  and  make 
with  skill,  certain  kinds  of  garments,  and  are  after 
wards  employed  in  families,  or  by  the  tailors.     Most 
of  the  ready-made  clothing,  kept  for  sale  in  cities,  is 
made  up  by  females. 

5.  The  instruments  employed  in  performing  the  op- 
erations of  the  tailor,  are  few  and  simple ;  the  prin- 
cipal of  these  are  the  shears,  the  scissors,  the  needle, 
the  thimble,  the  bodkin,  the  goose,  and  the  press- 
board. 

6.  The  great  art  of  a  master  tailor  consists  in  fit- 
ting the  dress  to  his  customer,  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  conceal  any  defect  of  form,  and  display  his  person 
to  the  best  advantage.     He  should,  therefore,  be  a 
good  judge  of  the  human  figure  ;  as,  from  this  knowl- 
edge, arises,  chiefly,  the  superiority  of  one  workman 
over  another  in  this  branch  of  the  business. 

7.  The  first  hint  on  the  art  of  clothing  the  human 
body,  was  given  to  man  by  the  Deity  himself;    for 
we  read  in  the  Scriptures,  that  "  Unto  Adam  and  to 
his  wife,  the  Lord  God  made  coats  of  skins,  and  cloth- 
ed them."     From  that  time  to  the  present,  the  art  of 
cutting  out  garments,  and  of  sewing  their  different 
parts  together,  has  been  practised,  more  or  less,  in 
every  place,  where  there  has  been  any  degree  of  civ. 
ilization. 


98  THE     TAILOR. 

S.  For  a  long  time,  it  is  probable,  that  thongs  and 
the  sinews  of  animals  were  used,  for  want  of  thread 
made  of  silk  or  vegetable  fibre  ;  and>  doubtless,  the 
same  necessity  caused  the  substitution  of  pointed 
bones  and  thorns,  instead  of  needles.  Such  rude  ma- 
terials and  instruments  are  still  employed  for  similar 
purposes  by  savage  nations.  The  dresses  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Greenland  are  sewed  together  with  thongs 
made  of  the  intestines  of  the  seal,  or  of  some  fish, 
which  they  have  the  skill  to  cut  fine,  after  having 
dried  them  in  the  air ;  and  even  the  inhabitants  of 
Peru,  although  considerably  advanced  in  civilization, 
when  that  country  was  first  visited  by  the  Spaniards, 
made  use  of  long  thorns,  in  sewing  and  fixing  their 
clothes. 

9.  We  have  no  means  of  determining  the  period 
of  the  world,  when  this  art  was  first  practised,  as  a 
particular  profession.     We  know,  in  general,  that  the 
dress  of  the  ancients  was  usually  more  simple  in  its 
construction  than  that  of  the  people  of  modern  times  ; 
and,  consequently,  it  required  less  skill  to  put  the  ma. 
terials  in  the  required  form.     It  may,  therefore,  be 
inferred,  that  either  the  females    or  the   slaves  of 
each  family  usually  made  up  the  clothing  of  all  its 
members. 

10.  The  distinguishing  dress  of  the  Romans  was 
the  toga,  or  gown ;  as  that  of  the  Greeks  was   the 
pallium,  or  cloak.     The  toga  was  a  loose,  woollen 
robe,  and  covered  nearly  the  whole  person ;  it  was 
round  and  close  at  the  bottom,  and  open  at  the  top, 
having  no  sleeves,  but  a  large  flap,  or  lappet,  which 
was  either  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder,  or  over  the 
head,  to  protect  it  from  the  heat  or  cold. 

11.  The  Romans,  at  an  early  period  of  their  his- 
tory,  used  no  other  dress,  and  it  was  also,  at  that 
time,  worn  by  the  women.     Afterwards,  they  wore, 
under  the  toga,  a  white  woollen  vest  called  tunica, 


THETAILOR.  99 

which  extended  a  little  below  the  knee.  At  first  it 
was  without  sleeves.  Tunics,  reaching  to  the  ancles, 
or  having  sleeves,  were  reckoned  effeminate  ;  but, 
under  the  emperors,  they  became  fashionable. 

12.  The  toga  was  usually  assumed  at  the  age  of 
seventeen.  Until  then,  the  youth  wore  a  kind  of 
gown,  bordered  with  purple,  denominated  toga  pr<z- 
texta  ;  and  such  a  garment  was  also  worn  by  females, 
until  they  were  married.  The  youthful  dress  was 
laid  aside,  and  the  toga  virilis,  or  manly  toga,  assu- 
med with  great  solemnity ;  as,  by  this  act,  the  indi. 
vidual  assumed  the  responsibilities  of  a  citizen.  The 
toga  was  worn  chiefly  in  the  city,  and  only  by  Ro- 
man  citizens. 


THE  MILLINER,  AND  THE  LADY'S  DRESS-MAKER. 


THE    MILLINER. 

1.  THE  milliner  is  one,  who  manufactures  and  re- 
pairs  bonnets  and  hats  for  ladies  and  children.     Her 
business  requires  the  use  of  pasteboard,  wire,  buck- 
ram,  silks,  satins,  muslins,  ribands,  artificial  flowers, 
spangles,  and  other  materials  too  numerous  to   be 
mentioned. 

2.  The  first  part  of  the  process  of  making  a  hat, 
or  bonnet,  consists  in  forming  a  crown  of  buckram  ; 
which  operation  is  performed  on  a  block  of  suitable 
size  and  shape  ;  and  to  this  is  applied  pasteboard,  or 
buckram,  edged  with  wire,  to  form  the  front  part. 
The  foundation  having  been  thus   laid,  it  is  usually 
covered  and  lined  with   some  of  the  materials  just 
enumerated,  and  finished  by  applying  to  it  the  trim- 


THE     MILLINER.  10* 

mings  required  by  the  fashion,  or  by  the  individual 
customer. 

3.  Ladies'  hats  are  also  made  of  rye  straw,  and  a 
kind  of  grass,  which  grows  in  Italy  ;  those  made  of 
the  latter  material  are  called  Leghorns,  from  the  name 
of  the  city,  in  or  near  which  they  are  principally  made. 
A  few  years  since,  these  had  almost  superseded  those 
made  of  straw ;  but  the  latter,  of  late,  have  nearly 
regained  their  former  ascendency. 

4.  In  the  United  States,  and  likewise  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  there  are  several  establishments  for 
making  straw  hats,  in  which  the  proprietors  employ 
females  to   perform  the  whole  labor.     The  straw  is 
first  cut  into  several  pieces,  so  as  to  leave  out  the 
joints,  and  then  whitened  by  smoking  them  with  the 
fumes  of  brimstone.     They  are  next  split  longitudi- 
nally into  several  pieces  by  a  simple  machine,  and  af- 
terwards plaited  with  the  fingers  and  thumbs.     The 
braid,  or  plait,  thus  produced,  is  sown  together  to  form 
hats  adapted  to  the  prevailing  fashion. 

5.  Great  quantities  of  straw  are,  also,  plaited  in 
families,  especially  in  the  New-England  states,  and 
sold  to  neighboring  merchants,  who,  in  turn,  dispose 
of  it  to  those  who  form  it  into  .hats.     The  milliners 
usually  keep  a  supply  of  Leghorn  and  straw  hats, 
which  they  line  and  trim  according  to  the  fancy  of 
their  customers. 

6.  Head-dresses  were  probably  used  nearly  as  early 
as  any  other  part  of  dress  ;  and  their  form  and  mate- 
rial have  likewise  been  equally  variable.     In  the  ear. 
ly  days  of  Rome,  the  head-dress  of  the  women  of 
that  city  was   very  simple  ;    and,   when  they  went 
abroad,  which  was  seldom,  they  covered  their  faces 
with  a  veil ;    but,  when  riches  and  luxury  had  in- 
creased, dress  became,  with  many,  the  principal  ob- 
ject of  attention  ;  hence,  a  woman's  toilet  and  orna. 
merits  were  called  her  world. 


102       THELADY'S    DRES S-M A K E R. 

.7.  The  head-dresses  of  the  ladies,  in  various  parta 
of  Europe,  especially  in  the  eighteenth  century,  were 
particularly  extravagant,  being  sometimes  so  high, 
that  the  face  seemed  to  be  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  body.  In  1714,  this  fashion  was  at  its  height  in 
France  ;  but  two  English  ladies  visiting  the  court  of 
Versailles,  introduced  the  low  head-dresses  of  their 
own  country. 

8.  The  high  head-dresses  had  no  sooner  fallen  into 
disuse  in  France,  than  they  were  adopted  in  England, 
and  even  carried  to  a  greater  degree  of  extravagance. 
To  build  one  of  these  elevated  structures  in  the  fash- 
ionahle  style,  both  the  barber  and  milliner  were  ne- 
cessary. The  head-dresses  of  the  ladies  of  the  pres- 
ent age,  are  characterized  by  great  simplicity,  when 
compared  with  those  of  several  periods  in  preceding 
ages. 

THE  LADY'S  DRESS-MAKER. 

1.  This  business  is  nearly  allied  to  the  foregoing, 
and  is,  therefore,  often  carried  on  in  conjunction  with 
it.     This  is  especially  the  case  in  villages  and  small 
towns,  where  sufficient  business  cannot  be  obtained 
in  the  exclusive  pursuit  of  one  branch. 

2.  The  customers  of  the  lady's   dress-maker  are 
not  always  easily  pleased,  as  they  frequently  expect 
more  from  her  skill  than  it  is  possible  to  accomplish. 
She,  however,  can  do  much  towards  concealing  the 
defects  of  nature  ;  and,  by  padding  and  other  means, 
can  sometimes  render  the  person  tolerably  well  pro- 
portioned, when,  in  its  natural  shape,  it  would  be 
quite  inelegant.     It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that 
dress-makers   are  guided  by  fashion  and  whim  in 
moulding  the  external  form  of  females,  rather  than  by 
the  best  specimens  of  the  human  figure,  as  exhibited 
by  eminent  painters  and  sculptors. 

3.  The  dress-maker  should  have  some  acquaint- 


THE    LADY'S    DRESS-MAKER.        103 

nnce  with  the  anatomy  and  functions  of  those  parts 
to  which  pressure  is  usually  applied  ;  for,  who  that 
knows  the  structure,  size,  and  office  of  the  liver,  and 
other  internal  organs  of  digestion  and  vitality,  would 
venture  to  apply  to  them  a  compressive  force  calcu- 
lated to  interfere  most  seriously,  if  not  dangerously, 
with  their  healthful  action  ? 

4.  The  fashions  for  ladies'  dresses  are  chiefly  pro- 
cured from  France,  and  the  dress-makers  from  that 
country  are,  therefore,  often  preferred  by  fashionable 
ladies.     Sometimes,  however,  a  dress-maker,  having 
a  name  with  a  French  termination,  will  answer  the 
purpose. 

5.  Corset-making  is  frequently  a  separate  branch 
of  business  ;  but  corsets  have  become  less  necessary  ; 
inasmuch  as  small  waists  are  less  admired  by  the  gen- 
tlemen than  formerly.     On  this  account,  also,  the  la- 
dies have  discovered  that  tight  lacing  is  somewhat 
uncomfortable,  especially  in  hot  weather,  and  in  crowd- 
ed  assemblies. 


THE    BARBER. 

1.  IT  is  the  business  of  the  barber  to  cut  and  dress 
the  hair,  to  make  wigs  and  false  curls,  and  to  shave 
the  beards  of  other  men.     In  ancient  times,  he  used 
also  to  trim  the  nails  ;  and  even  at  the  present  day, 
in  Turkey,  this  is  a  part  of  his  employment. 

2.  The  period,  when  men  began  to  shave  their 
beards,  is  not  certainly  known.     It  appears  that  the 
practice  was  common  among  the  Israelites  in  the  time 
of  Moses  ;  as  that  legislator  has  left  on  record  a  pro- 
hibitory law  concerning  it.     They  probably  borrowed 
the  custom  from  the  Egyptians.     It  is  stated  by  Plu- 
tarch, that  Alexander  the  Great  ordered  his  men  to 
be  shaved,  that  their  enemies  might  not  lay  hold  of 
their  beards  in  time  of  battle.     Before  this  time,  how- 
ever, many  of  the  Greeks  shaved  their  beards. 


THE     BARBER.  105 

3.  The  practice  does  not  appear  to  have  been  in- 
troduced amongst  the  ancient  Romans,  until  about 
the  year  296  before  the  Christian  era,  when  Paulus 
Ticinius  Maenas  brought  to  Rome  a  number  of  bar- 
bers from  Sicily.     Scipio  Africanus  was  the  first  man 
who  shaved  his  beard  every  day. 

4.  At  first,  the  barbers  had  no  shops,  but  shaved 
their  customers  at  the  corners  of  the  streets.     After 
a  while,  they  followed   their  vocation   in  shops,  or 
shades  ;  and,  at  this  period,  it  was  customary  for  fe- 
males to  officiate  in  the  various  branches  of  the  art. 
These  places,  however,  were  frequented  only  by  the 
poorer  class  of  the  people,  as  opulent  families  gen- 
erally kept  slaves  for  the  performance  of  these  duties. 
The  day  on  which  a  young  Roman  first  cut  off  his 
beard,  was  celebrated  by  him  and  his  friends  as  one 
of  peculiar  interest;  and  this  much-desired  indication 
of  manhood  was  consecrated  to  some  one  of  the  gods, 
generally  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus. 

5.  The  return  of  barbarism,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries,  banished  this  custom  from  the  Western  em- 
pire ;  nor  was  it  again  revived  in  Europe,  until  the 
seventeenth  century.      During  the  reigns  of  Louis 
XIII.  and  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  both  of  whom  as- 
cended the  throne  in  boyhood,  the  courtiers  and  fash- 
ionable people  began  to  use  the  razor,  that  they  might 
appear  with  smooth  chins,  and  thus  resemble,  in  this 
particular,  the  youthful  monarchs.     From  France,  the 
fashion,  at  length,  spread  all  over  Europe.     At  one 
time,  in  the  reign  of  the  English  queen  Elizabeth,  the 
fellows  of  Lincoln's  Inn  were  compelled  by  statute 
to  shave  their  beards,  at  least,  once  in  two  weeks. 
Omission  was  punished  with  fine,  loss  of  commons, 
and  finally  with  expulsion. 

6.  The  custom   of  shaving-  was   introduced   into 
Russia  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  compelled  his  subjects 
to  pay  a  tax  for  the  privilege  of  retaining  their  beards. 


106  THE     BARBER. 

This  singular  impost  was  exceedingly  unpopular,  and 
excited  greater  complaints  amongst  the  people  than 
any  other  measure  of  that  emperor.  The  decree  was 
rigidly  enforced,  and  every  one  who  would  not,  or 
could  not,  pay  the  tax,  was  forcibly  deprived  of  this 
favorite  ornament,  if  he  would  not  remove  it  volun- 
tarily. Some  of  the  people  saved  the  sad  trimmings 
of  their  chins ;  and,  that  they  might  never  be  entire- 
ly separated  from  these  precious  relics,  ordered  that 
they  should  be  deposited  with  their  bodies  in  their 
coffins. 

7.  Among  the  European  nations  that  have  been 
curious  in  whiskers,  the  Spaniards  have  been  partic- 
ularly distinguished  ;   and  the  loss  of  honor  among 
them  used  to  be  punished  by  depriving  the  individual 
of  his  whiskers. 

8.  The  Portuguese  were  but  little,  if  at  all,  behind 
the  Spaniards  in  their  estimate  of  these  valuable  or- 
naments.    As  an  evidence  of  this,  it  is  stated,  that, 
in  the  reign  of  Catharine,  Queen  of  Portugal,  the  brave 
John  de  Castro,  having  taken  the  castle  of  Diu  in  In- 
dia, and  being  afterwards  in  want  of  money,  applied 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Goa  to  loan  him  one  thousand 
piastres,  and,  as  security  for  that  sum,  sent  them  one 
of  his  whiskers,  telling  them  that  "  All  the  gold  in  the 
world  cannot  equal  the  value  of  this  natural  ornament 
of  my  valor."     The  people,  in  admiration  of  his  mag- 
nanimity, sent  him  the  money,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
returned  his  incomparable  whisker. 

9.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France,  whiskers 
attained  the  highest  degree  of  favor.     They  also  con- 
tinued in  fashion  during  the  early  part  of  the  succeed- 
ing reign.     Louis  XIV.  and  the  great  men  of  France, 
took  a  pride  in  wearing  them.     It  was  no  uncommon 
thing,  at  that  time,  foe  the  ladies  to  comb  and  dresa 
the  whiskers  of  their  beaux  ;  and  the  men  of  fashicu 


THE      BARBER.  107 

were  particular  in  providing  whisker-wax,  and  every 
article  necessary  to  this  agreeable  pastime. 

10.  The  whiskers  belonging  to  the  image  of  the 
Chinese  philosopher  Confucius,  which  is  preserved  by 
his  countrymen,  are  supposed  to  be  capable  of  confer- 
ring upon  those  who  might  wear  them,  a  portion  of 
the  wisdom  and  manly  beauty  of  that  illustrious  sage. 
Great  care,  however,  is  taken  that  none  shall  enjoy 
these  great  personal  qualifications  by  such  easy  means ; 
as  decapitation  is  the  penalty  for  plucking  the  whis- 
kers from  the  position  which  they  occupy. 

11.  When  the  practice  of  shaving  off  the  beard 
was  again  revived  in  Europe,  instrumental  music  waa 
employed  in  the  barber's  shop,  to  amuse  customers 
waiting  their  turn ;  but,  at  the  present  time,  news. 
papers  are  furnished  for  this  purpose.     In  taking  off 
the  beard,  soft  water,  good  soap,  a  brush,  and  a  sharp 
razor,  are  the  usual  requisites.     The  razor  should  be 
placed  nearly  flat  on  the  face,  and  be  moved  from 
point  to  heel.     Barbers  have  usually  some  regular 
customers,  many  of  whom  have  a  box  of  soap  and  a 
brush  appropriated  to  their  individual  use. 

12.  In  ancient  times,  great  attention  was  paid  to 
dressing  the  hair.     The  Hebrew  women  plaited,  and 
afterwards  confined  it  with  gold  and  silver  pins  ;  they 
also  adorned  it  with  precious  stones.     The  Greeks, 
both  male  and  female,  at  every  period  of  their  ancient 
history,  wore  long  hair,  which  they  usually  permitted 
to   hang   gracefully  upon  the  shoulders,  back,  and 
sometimes  upon  the  breast, 

13.  Adult  males,  among  the  Romans,  usually  wore 
their  hair  short,  and  dressed  with  great  care,  espe- 
cially in  later  ages,  when  attention  to  this  part  of  the 
person  was  carried  to  such  excess,  that  ointments  and 
perfumes  were  used  even  in  the  army.    The  hair  was 
cut  for  the  first  time,  when  the  boy  had  attained  hia 
seventh  year,  and  the  second  timp,  wheq  Jj§  wflS  four- 


108  THE     BARBER. 

teen  years  old.     His  locks,  at  each  cutting,  were 
commonly  dedicated  to  Apollo  or  Bacchus. 

14.  Both  men  and  women,  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  sometimes  permitted  their  hair  to  grow  in 
honor  of  some  divinity.     The  Jews,  also,  when  un- 
der the  vow  of  a  Nazarite,  were  not  permitted  to  trim 
their  hair  or  beards.    In  grief  and  mourning,  the  Ro- 
mans suffered  their  hair  and  beards  to  grow.     The 
Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  when  in  grief,  cut  their  hair 
and  shaved  their  beards,  as  likewise  did  some  of  the 
barbarous  nations  of  early  time. 

15.  Artificial  hair  began  to  be  fashionable,  at  an 
•srly  period,  and  was  used  by  the  Greeks,  Carthagin- 
ians, and  Romans.     In  the  time  of  Ovid,  blond  hair 
was  in  great  favour  at  Rome ;  and  those  ladies  who 
did  not  choose  to  wear  wigs,  powdered  their  hair  with 
a  kind  of  gold  dust.     They  wore  hanging  curls  all 
round  the  head,  to  which  they  were  fastened  with  cir- 
cular pins  of  silver.     Every  wealthy  Roman  lady  of 
fashion  kept  at  least  one  slave  to  frizzle  and  curl  the 
hair. 

16.  The  time,  when  wigs  first  came  into  use,  can- 
not now  be  ascertained.     It  is  certain,  however,  that 
they  were  worn  by  females  a  long  time  before  they 
became  fashionable  among  the  men. 

17.  Wigs,  perukes,  or  periwigs,  were  revived  in 
the  seventeenth  century.    In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII., 
or  about  the  year  1629,  they  became  fashionable  at 
Paris  ;  and,  as  that  city  was  generally  imitated  by  the 
rest  of  Europe  in  things  of  this  nature,  they  soon  be- 
came common.     The  wigs  were  very  large,  as  may 
be  seen  by  examining  ancient  portraits,  and  were 
covered  with  a  profusion  of  hair-powder.    At  first,  it 
was  disreputable  for  young  people  to  wear  them,  as 
the  loss  of  the  hair  at  an  early  age  was  attributed  to 
a  disease,  which  was,  of  itself,  discreditable. 

8.  When  wigs  were  first  introduced  into  England, 


THE     BARBER.  109 

some  of  the  clergy  opposed  them  violently,  consider- 
ing  their  use  more  culpable  than  wearing  long  hair ; 
since,  as  they  alleged,  it  was  more  unnatural.  Many 
preachers  inveighed  against  wigs  in  their  sermons, 
and  cut  their  own  hair  shorter  to  manifest  their  ab- 
horrence of  the  reigning  mode. 

19.  The  worldly-wise,  however,  observed  that  a 
periwig  procured  for  the  wearer  a  degree  of  respect 
and  deference  which  otherwise  might  not  have  been 
accorded  ;  and  hence  there  was  a  strong  tendency  to 
the  use  of  this  appendage.     The  judges  and  physi- 
cians, especially,  understood  well  this  influence  of  the 
wig,  and  gave  to  it  all  the  advantages  of  length  and 
breadth.    The  fashion,  at  length,  was  adopted  by  the 
ecclesiastics  themselves,  not  only  in  England,  but  in 
most  of  the  European  kingdoms,  as  well  as  in  the 
British  colonies  of  America. 

20.  The  fashion,  however,  except  in  cases  of  bald- 
ness, wherein  alone  it  is  excusable,  is  now  nearly  ban. 
ished  from  Europe  and  America.     This  desirable 
change  was  effected  principally  by  the  example  of  re- 
publican America,  and  by  the  influence  of  the  French 
Revolution.     The  law  passed  in  England  in  1795, 
imposing  a  tax  of  a  guinea  a  head  per  annum  on  those 
who  wore  hair-powder,  contributed  to  the  same  result, 
as  well  as  to  diminish  the  use  of  that  article. 

21.  The  manufacture  of  wigs  and  false  curls  is  an 
important  branch  of  the  business  of  the  barber.    The 
first  process  in  forming  a  wig  is  to  produce,  in  the 
hair  about  to  be  used  for  this  purpose,  a  disposition  to 
curl.     This  is  done  by  winding  it  on  a  cylinder  of 
wood  or  earth,  and  afterwards  boiling  it  in  water.    It 
is  then  dried,  and  baked  in  an  oven.    Thus  prepared, 
it  is  woven  on  a  strong  thread,  and  is  subsequently 
sewn  on  a  caul  fitted  to  the  head.     False  curls  are 
made  on  the  same  principle. 

22.  Wigs  and  false  curls  were  not  made  in  ancient 


110  THE     BARBER. 

times  precisely  in  the  same  manner ;  although  their 
appearance,  when  finished,  was  probably  similar. 
The  hair  was  then  attached  directly  to  a  piece  of 
thin  leather,  by  means  of  some  adhesive  substance,  or 
composition. 

23.  Many  barbers,  especially  those  who  have  a  rep- 
utation  for  making  wigs  and  false  curls  in  a  fashion, 
able  style,  keep  for  sale  perfumery,  as  well  as  a  vari- 
ety of  cosmetics. 

24.  From  the  eleventh  to  the  eighteenth  century, 
surgical  operations  were  almost  exclusively  perform, 
ed  by  the  barbers  and  bath-keepers.     As  phlebotomy 
was  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  profit  to  the  barbers, 
they  adopted  a  sign  emblematical  of  this  operation. 
It  consisted  of  a  pole,  representing  the  staff  which 
the  individual  held  in  his  hand,  while  the  blood  was 
flowing  from  the  arm.     The  white  band  wound  spi- 
rally about  the  pole,  represented  the  fillet  of  linen 
with  which  the  arm  was  afterwards  secured. 

25.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  remark,  that  the  same 
sign  is  still  employed  by  the  barbers.;  although,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  they  have  ceased  to  perform  the 
operation  of  which  it  was  significant. 


THE    TANNER,    AND    THE    CURRIER. 
THE    TANNER. 

1.  THE  art  of  tanning  consists  in  converting  hides 
and  skins  into  leather,  by  impregnating  them  with  as- 
tringent matter. 

2.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  period  at  which 
the  art  of  tanning  was  discovered.     It  was  doubtless 
known  to  the  ancients,  and  probably  to  the  antedilu- 
vians, in  some. degree  of  perfection  ;  since  skins  were 
applied  as  means  of  clothing  the  human  body,  before 
the  arts  of  spinning  and  weaving  were  practised.     It 
is  likely,  however,  that  they  were  applied  to  this  pur- 
pose, for  a  considerable  time,  in  their  natural  state  ; 
and  that  accident,  at  length,  suggested  the  means  of 
rendering  them  more  applicable,  by  saturating  them 
with  certain  mineral  or  vegetable  substances. 

3.  Although  the  art  of  converting  skins  into  leather 


112  THE      TANNER. 

was  practised  in  remote  ages,  yet  it  was  not  until 
near  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that  the  true 
principle  of  the  process  was  understood.  Before  this 
tiine,  it  was  supposed,  that  the  astringent  principle  of 
the  agents  employed,  was  a  resinous  substance,  which 
adhered  mechanically  to  the  fibres,  and  thus  render, 
ed  them  firm  and  insoluble.  The  correct  explana- 
tion was  first  given  by  Deyeux,  and  afterwards  more 
fully  developed  by  M.  Seguin.  These  chemists  clear- 
ly  proved,  that  the  formation  of  leather  was  the 're- 
sult of  a  chemical  union  between  a  substance  called 
tannin,  and  the  gelatinous  part  of  the  skin. 

4.  The  subject,  however,  was  not  thoroughly  un- 
derstood,  and  reduced  to  scientific  principles,  until 
the  year  1803,  when  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  gave  it  a 
careful  investigation,  in  a  series  of  chemical  experi- 
ments.    These  inquiries  resulted  in  the  conviction, 
that  the  method  of  tanning  which  had  been  in  gen- 
era! use,  may,  with  a  few  alterations,  be  considered 
preferable  to  that  by  which  the  process  is  carried  on 
with  more  rapidity. 

5.  The  skin  which  envelopes  the  bodies  of  animals, 
consists  of  three  layers.     That  on  the  outside  is  a  thin, 
white,  elastic  membrane,  called  the  cuticle,  or  scarf 
skin;  that  on  the  inside  is  a  strong  membrane,  de- 
nominated the  culis,  or  true  skin  ;  between  these  two 
is  a  very  thin  membrane,  to  which  anatomists  have 
given  the  name  rete  mucosum,  and  in  which  is  situa- 
ted the  substance  which  gives  color  to  the  animal. 
The  cutis  is  com'posed  of  fibres,  which  run  in  every 
direction,  and,  being  by  far  the  thickest  layer,  is  the 
one  that  is  converted  into  leather. 

6.  The  skins  of  large  animals,  such  as  those  of  the 
ox  and  horse,  are  denominated  hides  ;  and  those  of 
smaller  animals,  as  of  the  calf,  goat,  and  sheep,  are 
called  skins.      Of  the   former  description,  is   made 
thick,  of  the  latter,  thin  leather.     The  process  of  tan- 
ning different  skins  varies  in  many  particulars,  ac- 


THE      TANNER.  113 

cording  to  the  nature  of  the  leather,  and  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  to  be  applied. 

7.  The  general  process  of  changing  thick  hides 
into  sole-leather,  is  as  follows  :  They  are  first  soaked 
in  water,  to  free  them  from  dirt  and  blood  ;  and  then, 
if  rigid,  they  are  beaten  and  rubbed,  or  rolled  under 
a  large  stone,  to  render  them  pliable.     They  are  next 
soaked  in  lime-water,  or  hung  up  in  a  warm  room, 
and  smoked,  until  a  slight  putrescency  takes  place. 
The  hair,  cuticle,  rete  mucosum,  on  one  side,  and  the 
fleshy  parts  on  the  other,  are  then  scraped  off,  on  a 
beam,  with  a  circular  knife. 

8.  Nothing  now  remains  but  the  cutis,  or  true  skin. 
Several  hides,  in  this  state  of  preparation,  are  put  to- 
gether into  a  vat,  for  the  purpose  of  impregnating  them 
with  tannin.     This  substance  is  found  in  astringent 
vegetables,  and  is  obtained,  in  a  proper  state  for  appli- 
cation, by  infusion  in  water.     In  that  condition,  it  is 
called  ooze,  which  is  first  applied  in  a  weak  state. 

9.  After  the  ooze,  of  different  degrees  of  strength, 
has  been  renewed  several  times,  they  are  put  between 
layers  of  bark,  and  suffered  to  remain  several  months, 
fresh  bark,  from  time  to  time,  being  supplied.     The 
whole  process  generally  occupies  from  twelve  to  six- 
teen months.      When  strong  solutions  of  tannin  are 
used,  the  leather  is  formed  in  a  much  shorter  time ; 
but,  in  that  case,  it  is  much  more  rigid,  and  more  liable 
to  crack.     It  is   rendered  smooth  and    compact,  by 
beating  it  with  a  wooden  beetle,  or  by  passing  it  be- 
tween rollers. 

10.  Oak  bark,  on  account  of  its  cheapness,  and  the 
quantity  of  tannin  which  it  contains,  is  more  exten- 
sively employed  by  tanners  than  any  other  vegetable 
substance.     In  sections  of  country,  where  this  kind 
cannot  be  conveniently  obtained,  the  bark  of  the  hem. 
lock,  spruce,  and  chestnut,  the  leaves  of  the  sumach, 
and  various  other  astringents,  are  substituted. 


114  THE     TANNER. 

11.  The  process  of  tanning  calf-skins  is  somewhat 
different  in  many  of  its  details.     They  are  first  put 
into  a  solution  of  lime,  where  they  remain  during  ten 
or  fifteen  days,  and  are  then  scraped  on  both  sides 
on  the  beam,  with  a  circular  knife,  as  in  the  formei 
case,  and  for  the  same  purpose.     They  are  then  wash- 
ed  in  water,  and  afterwards  immersed  in  an  infusion 
of  hen  or  pigeon's  dung.     Here  they  are  left  for  a 
week  or  ten  days,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weath- 
er and  other  circumstances  ;  during  which  time,  they 
are  frequently  handled,  and  scraped  on  both  sides. 
By  these  means,  the  lime,  oil,  and  saponaceous  mat 
ter,  are  discharged,  and  the  skin  is  rendered  pliable. 

12.  They  are  next  put  into  a  vat  containing  weak 
ooze,  and  afterwards  removed  to  several  others  of 
regularly  increasing   strength.     In   the   mean   time, 
they  are  taken  up  and  handled  every  day,  that  they 
may  be  equally  acted  upon  by  the  tanning  principle. 
The  time  occupied  in  the  whole  process,  is  from  two 
to  six  months.     The  light  and  thin  sorts  of  hides,  de- 
signed for  upper  leather,  harnesses,  &c.,  are  treated 
in  a  similar  manner. 

13.  The  tanner  procures  his  hides  and  skins  from 
various  sources,  but  chiefly  from  the  butcher,  and  from 
individuals  who  kill  the  animals  for  their  own  con- 
sumption.    Great  quantities  of  dry  hides  are  also  ob- 
tained from  South  America,  where  cattle  are  killed  in 
great  numbers,  principally  for  the  sake  of  this  valu. 
able  envelope  of  their  bodies. 

THE    CURRIER. 

1.  It  is  the  business^>f  the  currier  to  dress  the 
thinner  kinds  of  leather.  In  most  cases,  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  except  in  and  near  large  cities,  the  busi. 
ness  of  tanning  and  currying  are  usually  united  in 
the  same  individual ;  or,  at  least,  the  two  branches  of 
business  are  carried  on  together,  by  the  aid  of  work, 
men,  skilled  in  their  respective  trades. 


THE     CURRIER.  115 

2.  The  mode  of  dressing  the  different  kinds   of 
skins,  varies  in  some  respects ;  but,  as  the  general 
method  of  operating  is  the  same  in  every  sort,  a  de- 
scription applicable  in  one  case  will  convey  a  suffi- 
ciently accurate  idea  of  the  whole.     We  shall,  there- 
fore, select  the  calf-skin,  since  it  is  more  frequently 
the  subject  of  the  currier's  skill  than  any  other. 

3.  The  skin  is  first  soaked  in  water,  until  it  has 
become  sufficiently  .soft,  and  then  shaved  with  the 
currier's  knife,  on  the  inner  side,  over  the  currier's 
beam.     It  is  then  placed  on  a  table,  somewhat  in- 
clined from  the  workman,  and  scoured  on  both  sides 
with  the  edge  of  a  narrow,  smooth  stone,  set  in  a  han- 
dle, and  again,  with  an  iron  sleeker  of  a  similar  shape. 
The  skin  is  next  stuffed  with  a  composition  of  tallow 
and  tanner's  oil,  on  the  flesh  side,  and  then  hung  up 
to  dry.    Afterwards  it  is  rubbed  on  the  hair  side  with 
a  board,  and  again  scraped  on  the  flesh  side  with  the 
knife.     Having  been  thus  prepared,  the  skin  is  black- 
ed on  the  flesh  side  with  lampblack  and  tanner's  oil, 
and  subsequently  rubbed  with  paste,  applied  with  a 
brush.    When  it  has  been  dried,  the  whole  process  is 
finished  by  rubbing  both  sides  with  a  glass  sleeker. 

4.  Horse  hides  are  blacked  on  the  hair  side,  or,  as 
the  curriers  term  it,  on  the  grain,  with  a  solution  of 
copperas  water.     Leather  designed  for  harnesses,  for 
covering  carriages,  and  for  ether  similar  purposes,  is 
also  blacked  on  that  side  in  the  same  manner. 

5.  The  trade  of  the  currier  is  divided  into  two  or 
three  branches.    Some  dress  only  calf-skins  and  other 
thick  leather  designed  for  shoes,  harnesses,  and  car- 
riages ;  others  confine  themselves  to  dressing  skins, 
which  are  to  be  applied  to  binding  books,  and  to  other 
purposes  requiring  thin  leather.     It  may  be  well  to 
remark  here,  that  the  dressers  of  thin  leather  usually 
tan  the  skins  themselves,  using  the  leases  of  sumach, 
instead  of  bark. 


THE  SHOE  AND  BOOT  MAKER. 

1.  As  the  shoe  is  an  article  of  primary  utility,  it 
was  used,  more  or  less,  in  the  earliest  ages.     Some 
writers  suppose,  that  the  Deity,  in  clothing  man  with 
skins,  did  not  leave  him  to  go  barefooted,  but  gave 
him  shoes  of  the  same  material. 

2.  The  shoes  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  were  made 
of  the  papyrus.     The  Chinese,  as  well  as  the  inhab- 
itants of  India,  and  some  other  nations  of  antiquity, 
manufactured  them  from  silk,  rushes,  linen,  wood,  the 
bark  of  trees,  iron,  brass,  silver,  and  gold,  and  some- 
times ornamented  them  with  precious  stones. 

3.  The  Romans  had  various  coverings  for  the  feet, 
the  chief  of  which  were  the  calceus  and  the  solea. 
The  calceus  somewhat  resembled  the  shoe  we  wear 
at  present,  and  was  tied  upon  the  instep  with  a  latchet 


THE      SHOE     AND      BOOT      MAKER.     117 

or  lace.  The  solea,  or  sandal,  was  a  thick  cork  sole, 
covered  above  and  beneath  with  leather,  and  neatly 
stitched  on  the  edge.  It  left  the  upper  part  of  the 
foot  bare,  and  was  fastened  to  it  by  means  of  straps, 
which  were  crossed  over  the  instep,  and  wound  about 
the  ankle.  Roman  citizens  wore  the  calceus  with 
the  toga,  when  they  went  abroad  in  the  city,  while 
the  solea  was  worn  at  home  and  on  journeys.  The 
solea  was  also  used  at  entertainments ;  but  it  was 
changed  for  the  calceus,  when  the  guests  were  about 
to  surround  the  table. 

4.  The  senators  wore  shoes,  which  came  up  to  the 
middle  of  the  leg,  and  which  had  a  golden  or  silver 
crescent  on  the  top  of  the  foot.     The  shoes  of  the 
women  were  generally  white,  sometimes  red,  scarlet, 
or  purple,  and  were  adorned  with  embroidery  and 
pearls  ;  but  those  of  the  men  were  mostly  black.    On 
days  of  public  ceremony,  however,  the  magistrates 
wore  red  shoes. 

5.  Boots  were  used  in  very  ancient  times,  and  were 
primarily  worn,  as  a  kind  of  armor,  with  a  view  of 
protecting  the    lower   extremities    in  battle.      They 
were,  at  first,  made  of  leather,  afterwards  of  brass  or 
iron,  and  were  proof  against  the  thrusts  and  cuts  of 
warlike  weapons.     The  boot  was  called  ocrea  by  the 
Romans,  who,  as  well  as  the  Greeks,  used  it  in  the 
army,  and  in  riding  on  horseback,  and  sometimes  in 
pedestrian  journeys. 

6.  The  fashion  of  boots  and  shoes,  like  every  other 
part  of  dress,  has  been  subject  to  a  number  of  chan- 
ges, as  regards  both  their  form  and  material.     In  Eu- 
rope,  about  one  thousand  years  ago,  the  greatest  prin- 
ces wore  shoes  with  wooden  soles.     In  the  reign  of 
William  Rufus,  of  England,  the  shoes  of  the  great  had 
long,  sharp  points,  stuffed  with  tow,  and  twisted  like 
a  ram's  horn.     The  clergy  preached  against  this  fash- 
ion ;  but  the  points  continued  to  increase  in  length, 


118   THE  SHOE  AND  BOOT  MAKER. 

until  the  reign  of  Richard  the  Second,  when  they  were 
tied  to  the  knees  with  chains  of  silver  or  gold.  In 
the  year  1463,  Parliament  interposed,  and  prohibited 
the  manufacture  or  use  of  shoes  or  boots  with  pikes 
exceeding  two  inches  in  length. 

7.  Lasft   adapted   to  each  foot,  commonly   called 
rights  and  lefts,  were  not  introduced  into  England, 
until  about  the  year  1785 ;    nor  was  cramping,  or 
crimping,  the  front  part  of  boots  practised  there  for 
ten  years  after  that  period.     These  improvements  did 
not  become  generally  known,  or,  at  least,  were  not 
much  used,  in  the  United  States,  for  many  years  after 
their  adoption  in  Great  Britain. 

8.  Many  facts,  besides  the  preceding,  might  be  ad- 
duced to   prove,  that  the  art  of  making  shoes  and 
boots,  although   uninterruptedly  practised  from  the 
earliest  ages,  has  received  many  important  improve- 
ments within  the  last  fifty  years. 

9.  In  Europe  and  America,  boots  and  shoes  are 
commonly  made  of  leather.     In   shoes  for  females, 
however,  it  is  not  unusual  to  use  prunello,  which  is  a 
kind  of  twilled,  worsted  cloth.     In  all  cases,  thick 
leather  is  used  for  the  soles. 

10.  The  business  of  making  boots  and  shoes  is  car- 
ried on  very  systematically  in  large  establishments. 
The  materials  are  cut  out  and  fitted  by  the  foreman, 
or  by  the  person  who  carries  on  the  business,  whilst 
the  pieces  are  stitched  together,  and  the  work  finish- 
ed, by  workmen  who  sit  upon  the  bench. 

11.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  the  trade  have 
fixed   upon  certain  sizes,  which   are   designated   by 
numbers ;  and,  corresponding  to  these,  the  lasts  are 
formed  by  the  last-maker ;  but,  to  be  still  more  exact, 
individuals  sometimes  procure  lasts  corresponding  to 
their  feet,  on  which  they  cause  their  boots  and  shoes 
to  be  made. 

12.  The  following  is  a  description  of  the  process 


THE   SHOE  AND   BOOT   MAKER.   119 

of  making  a  leather  shoe :  after  the  materials  have 
been  cut  out  according  to  the  measure,  or  size,  and 
the  parts  of  the  uppers  have  been  stitched  together, 
the  sole-leather  is  hammered  on  the  lapstone,  tacked 
to  the  last,  and  trimmed  with  a  knife.  The  upper 
leather  is  next  stretched  on  the  last  with  a  pair  of 
pincers,  fastened  to  its  proper  place  with  tacks,  ana 
then  sewed  to  the  bottom  of  the  sole  with  a  waxed 
thread.  A  narrow  strip  of  leather,  called  a  welt,  is 
also  fastened  to  the  sole  by  similar  means,  and  to  this 
is  stitched  another  sole.  A  heel  being  added,  the 
shoe  is  finished  by  trimming  and  polishing  it  with  ap. 
propriate  instruments. 

13.  The  edges  of  fine  leather  shoes  and  boots,  are 
trimmed  with  thin  strips  of  the  like  material,  whilst 
those  of  prunello,  and  other  thin  shoes  for  ladies,  are 
bound  with  narrow  tape.     The  binding  is  applied  by 
females  with  thread,  by  means  of  a  common  needle. 

14.  Shoe-thread  is  commonly  spun  from  flax  ;  that 
from  hemp  is  much  stronger,  and  was  formerly  pre- 
ferred ;  but  it  is  now  used  only  for  very  strong  work. 
The  greater  part  of  the  shoe-thread  used  in  the  Uni- 
ted  States,  is  spun  by  machinery,  at  Leeds,  in  Eng- 

and,  from  Russian  flax.  The  wax  employed  by  shoe- 
makers, was  formerly  composed  of  tar  and  rosin  ;  but 
it  is  now  most  usually  made  of  pitch. 

15.  The  shoemaker,  in  sewing  together  different 
parts  of  his  work,  uses  threads  of  various  sizes,  which 
are'  composed  of  several  small  threads  of  different 
lengths.     A  hog's  bristle  is  fastened  to  each  end  of 
it,  which  enables  the  workman  to  pass  it  with  facility 
through  the  holes  made  with  the  awl. 

-  16.  An  expeditious  way  of  fastening  the  soles  of 
boots  and  shoes  to  the  upper  leathers,  is  found  in  the 
use  of  wooden  pegs  or  brass  nails.  The  old  method, 
however,  is  generally  preferred,  on  several  accounts  ; 


120  THE   SHOE   AND  BOOT  MAKER. 

but  chiefly,  because  the  work  is  more  durable,  and  be- 
cause  it  can  be  more  easily  repaired. 

17.  Journeymen  working  at  this  trade  most  usually 
confine  their  labours  to  particular  kinds  of  work ;  as 
few  can  follow  every  branch  with  advantage.     Some 
make  shoes  and  boots  for  men  ;  others  confine  their 
labours  to  those  designed  for  ladies  ;  but,  by  their  aid, 
the  master-shoemaker  can,  and  usually  does,  supply 
every  kind  at  his  store. 

18.  It  is  no  uncommon  thing  in  the  country,  for 
the  farmers  to  purchase  leather,  and  employ  the  shoe- 
maker to  make  it  up  ;  and  this  is  done,  in  most  cases, 
on  their  own  premises.     The  shoemaker  employed 
in  this  way,  removes  from  house  to  house,  changing 
his  location,  whenever  he  has  completely  served  a 
whole  family  in  his  vocation.     In  such  cases,  he  is 
said,  by  the  trade,  to  be  whipping  the  cat.     The  set 
of  tools  with  which  he  operates,  is  called  his  kit. 

19.  The  shoemaker  usually  buys  his  leather  from 
the  manufacturer  ;  and  procures  his  tools,  tacks,  and 
various  other  articles  of  a  similar  nature,  at  the  find- 
ing stores.     In  some  cases,  the  shoemaker  with  little 
or  no  capital,  gets  his  materials  from  the  leather-cut' 
ter,  who  makes  it  a  business  to  supply  them  ready 
cut  to  the  proper  size  and  shape.     There  are,  how- 
ever, but  few  leather-cutters  in  our  country ;  but,  in 
England,  this  branch  of  trade  is  one  of  considerable 
importance,  and  is  frequently  connected  with  that  of 
the  leather-dresser. 


VHE  SADDLER  AND  HARNESS-MAKER,  AND  THE 
TRUNK-MAKER. 

THE    SADDLER   AND    HARNESS-MAKER. 

1.  THE  invention  of  the  saddle  has  been  attributed 
to  the  Selians,  a  people  of  ancient  Franconia.     Un- 
der this  impression,  it  has  been  supposed  that  the  Lat- 
ins gave  it  the  name  of  sella.     The  period  at  which 
it  was  first  used,  cannot  be  ascertained.    It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  horse  had  been  rendered  subservi- 
ent to  man,  several  centuries  before  this  convenient 
article  was  thought  of. 

2.  At  first,  the  rider  sat  upon  the  bare  back  of  the 
animal,  and  guided  him  with  a  switch,  but  afterwards 
with  a  strap  put  round  the  nose.     In  the  course  of 
time,  the  rider  came  to  use,  upon  the  back  of  the 
horse,  the  skins  of  beasts,  in  order  to  render  his  seat 

K 


122  THE  SADDLER  AND  HARNESS-MAKER. 

more  easy.  The  Greeks,  and  many  other  refined 
nations  of  antiquity,  sometimes  used  superb  trappings, 
composed  of  cloth,  leather,  and  skins  dressed  with  the 
hair  on  ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  gold,  silver,  and  pre- 
cious stones,  with  which  these  were  ornamented,  the 
horses  were  often  otherwise  decked  with  bells,  col- 
lars, and  devices  of  various  kinds. 

3.  The  Romans,  in  the  days  of  the  republic,  deem- 
ed it  more  manly  to  ride  on  the.  bare  back  of  the  ani- 
mal  than  on  coverings.     At  a  later  period,  they  used 
a  kind  of  square  pannel,  without  stirrups ;  and  about 
the  year  340  of  the  Christian  era,  they  began  to  ride 
on  saddles.     It  appears,   that  those   first  employed 
were  very  heavy,  as  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  in  the 
same  century,  forbade  the  use  of  any  which  weighed 
over  sixty  pounds.     The  use  of  saddles  was  estab- 
lished in  England  by  Henry  the  Seventh,  who  enjoin- 
ed  on  his  nobility  the  practice  of  riding  upon  them. 

4.  The  frame  of  a  saddle  is  called  a  tree.     It  is 
not  made  by  the  saddlers,  but  by  persons  who  confine 
their  attention  to  this  branch  of  business.    The  trees 
are  constructed  of  wood,  with  a  small  quantity  of  iron, 
and  covered  with  canvas. 

5.  In  making  a  common  saddle,  the  workman  first 
extends  two  strips  of  straining  web  from  the  pommel 
to  the  hinder  part  of  the  tree,  and  fastens  them  with 
tacks.     The  tree  is  then  covered  on  the  upper  side 
with  two  thicknesses  of  linen  cloth,  between  which  a 
quantity  of  wool  is  afterwards  interposed.     A  cover- 
ing of  thin  leather,  usually  made  of  hog's-skin,  is  next 
tacked  on,  and  the  flaps  added.     Under  the  whole  are 
placed  the  pads  and  saddle-cloth  ;  the  former  of  which 
is  made  of  thin  cotton  or  linen  cloth,  and  thin  leather, 
stuffed  with  hair.     The  addition  of  four  straps,  two 
girths,  two  stirrup-leathers,   and  as  many  stirrups, 
completes  the  whole  operation. 

6.  The  roughness,  or  the  little  indentations  in  the 


THE     TRUNK-MAKER.  123 

flaps,  are  produced  by  passing  the  leather  between 
rollers,  in  contact  with  a  rough  surface,  or  by  beating 
it  with  a  mallet,  on  the  face  of  which  has  been  fasten- 
ed a  piece  of  the  skin  from  a  species  of  shark,  com- 
mr/nly  called  the  dog-fish. 

7.  Saddles  are  often  covered  with  buckskin,  curi- 
ously stitched  into  figures,  and  having  the  spaces  be- 
tween the  seams  stuffed  with  wool  ;  this  is  particu- 
larly the  case  in  side-saddles.     The  form  of  saddles, 
and  the  quality  of  the  materials,  together  with  the 
workmanship,  are  considerably  varied,  to  suit  the  pur- 
poses to  which  they  are  to  be  applied,  and  to  accom- 
modate the  fancy  of  customers. 

8.  The  process  of  making  bridles  and  harness  for 
horses,  is  extremely  simple.    The  leather  is  first  cut  out 
with  a  knife  of  some  description,  but  usually  with  one 
of  a  crescent-like  form,  or  with  a  blade  set  in  a  gauge, 
and  then  stitched  together  with  the  kind  of  thread 
used  by  shoemakers^     The  awl  employed  in  punching 
the  holes  is  straight ;  and  needles  are  most  commonly 
used,  instead  of  the  bristles  which  point  the  shoema- 
ker's threads.     The  mode  of  manufacturing  saddle- 
bags, portmanteaus,  and  valises,  is  too  obvious  to  need 
description. 

THE    TRUNK-MAKER. 

1.  The   manufacture  of  trunks   is   equally  simple 
with  that  of  making  harness.     In  common  cases,  it 
consists  chiefly  in  lining  the  inside  of  a  wooden  box 
with  paper,  or  some  kind  of  cloth,  and  covering  the 
outside  with  a  skin,  or  with  leather,  which  is  fasten- 
ed to  the  wood  by  means  of  tacks.     Narrow  strips 
of  leather  are  fastened  upon  hair  trunks  with  brass 
nails,  by  way  of  ornament,  as  well  as  to  confine  the 
work. 

2.  Instead  of  a  wooden  box,  oblong  rims  of  iron, 
and  very  thick,  solid  pasteboard,  fastened  together  by 


124  THE    TRUNK-MAKER. 

means  of  strong  thread,  are  used  in  the  best  kinds  of 
trunks.  The  frame  or  body,  thus  formed,  is  covered 
with  some  substantial  leather,  which  is  first  stuck  OD 
with  paste,  and  then  secured  by  sewing  it  to  the  paste- 
board with  a  waxed  thread.  Over  the  whole,  are  ap. 
plied  strips  of  iron,  fastened  with  brass  or  copper 
nails  with  large  heads.  The  lines  and  figures  on  the 
leather,  added  by  way  of  ornament,  are  produced  by 
a  crease,  a  tool  made  of  wood,  ivory,  or  whalebone. 
Its  form  is  much  like  that  of  the  blade  of  a  common 
paper-folder. 

3.  How  long  trunk-making  has  been  a  separate 
trade,  cannot  be  exactly  ascertained.  The  trunk- 
makers  in  France  were  incorporated  into  a  company, 
in  1596.  In  the  United  States,  this  branch  of  busi- 
ness is  very  commonly  united  with  that  of  the  saddler 
and  harness-maker. 


THE  SOAP-BOILER,  AND  THE  CANDLE-MAKER- 

THE    SOAP-BOILER. 

1.  THE  business  of  the  soap-boiler  consists  in  man- 
ufacturing soap,  by  the  combination  of  certain  oily 
and  alkaline  substances. 

2.  The  earliest  notice  of  this  useful  article  occurs 
in  the  works  of  Pliny,  in  which  it  is  stated,  that  soap 
was  composed  of  tallow  and  ashes  ;  that  the  mode  of 
combining  them  was  discovered  by  the  Gauls;  but 
that  the  German  soap  was  the  best. 

3.  For  many  ages   before  the  invention  of  soap, 
saponaceous  plants,  and  several  kinds  of  earth,  to- 
gether with  animal  matters  and  the  ley  from  ashes, 
were  employed  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  the  skin, 
and  articles  of  clothing.     The  idea  of  combining 


126  THE     SOAP-BOILER. 

some  of  these  substances,  with  the  view  of  forming 
soap,  probably  originated  in  accident. 

4.  The  vegetable  oils  and  animal  fats,  capable  of 
saponification,  are  very  numerous  ;   but  those  most 
commonly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  the  soaps 
of  commerce,   are  olive-oil,   whale-oil,   tallow,   lard, 
palm-oil,  and  rosin  ;  and  the  alkalies  with  which  these 
are  most  frequently  combined,  are  soda,  the  ley  of 
ashes,  or  its  residuum,  potash. 

5.  Soda  is  sometimes  called  the  mineral  alkali;  be- 
cause  it  is  found,  in  some  parts  of  the  world,  in  the 
earth.    It  was  known  to  the  ancients,  at  a  very  early 
period,  under  the  denomination  of  natron.     It  receiv- 
ed this  appellation  from  the  lakes  of  Natron,  in  Egypt, 
from  the  waters  of  which  it  was  produced  by  evapo- 
ration, during  the  summer  season. 

6.  The  soda  of  commerce  is  now  chiefly  obtained 
from  the  salsola,  a  genus  of  plants  which  grows  on 
the  sea-shore.     In  Spain,  the  plant  from  which  soda 
is  obtained  is  denominated  barilla ;  hence,  the  sub- 
stance produced  from  it  by  incineration  has  received 
the    same    appellation.     The    ashes    of  a   sea-weed 
which  grows  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
is  called  kelp.     In  Europe,  barilla  and  kelp  are  more 
extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  than 
any  other  alkaline  substances  ;  but,  in  this  country, 
where  wood  is  so  much  used  for  fuel,  common  ashes 
are  generally  preferred. 

7.  The  process  of  making  the  ordinary  brown  or 
yellow  soap,  from  wood-ashes,  is  conducted   in   the 
following  manner.     The  alkali  is  first  obtained  in  a 
state  of  solution  in  water,  by  leeching  the  ashes  as 
described  in  page  26,  and  then  poured,  in  a  weak 
state,  into  a  copper  or  iron  caldron,  having  a  large 
wooden  tub  carefully  affixed  to  the  top  of  it. 

8.  When  the  ley  has  been  properly  heated,  the 
tallow,  either  in  a  tried  state  or  in  the  suet,  is  grad 


THE     SOAP-BOILER.  127 

ually  added.  More  ley,  of  greater  concentration,  is 
poured  in  ;  and  the  ingredients  are  moderately  boiled 
for  several  hours ;  while  a  person,  as  represented  in 
the  preceding  cut,  aids  their  chemical  union  by  agi- 
tating them  with  a  wooden  spatula. 

9.  After  a  quantity  of  rosin  has  been  added,  and 
properly  incorporated  with  the  other  materials,  the 
fire  is  withdrawn  until  the  next  morning,  when  it  is 
again  raised  ;  then,  with  the  view  of  forming  the  paste 
into  hard  soap,  a  quantity  of  muriate  of  soda  (com- 
mon salt)  is  added.     The  muriatic  acid  of  this  sub- 
stance,  uniting  with  the  potash,  forms  with  it  muriate 
of  potash,  which  dissolves  in  the  water,  while  the  soda 
combines   with   the   tallow   and   rosin.     Hard    soap, 
therefore,  contains  no  potash  ;  although  this  alkali  is 
generally  employed  during  the  early  part  of  the  pro. 
cess  of  making  it. 

10.  After  the  addition  of  the  muriate  of  soda,  the 
boiling  and  stirring  are  continued  two  or  three  hours, 
when  the  fire  is  withdrawn,  and  the  contents  of  the 
caldron  are  suffered  to  be  at  rest.     When  the  soap 
has  completely  separated  from  the  watery  part  and 
extraneous  matters,  it  is  laded  into  another  caldron, 
again  diluted  with  strong  ley,  and  heated.     The  paste 
having  been  brought  to  a  proper  consistence,  more 
common  salt  is  added  as  before,  and  for  the  same 
purposes. 

11.  The  chemical  part  of  the  process  having  been 
thus  completed,  the  soap  is  laded  into  single  wooden 
boxes,  or  into  one  or  more  composed  of  several  dis- 
tinct frames,  which  can  be  removed  separately  from 
the  soap,  after  it  has  become  solid  enough  to  stand 
without  such  support.      The  soap  is  cut  into  bars, 
of  nearly  a  uniform  size,  by  means  of  a  small  brass 
wire. 

12.  Manufacturers  of  soap  have  contrived  various 
methods  of  adulterating  this  article,  or  of  adding  in- 


1  28  THE      S  O  A  P-B  O  I  L  E  K. 

gradients  which  increase  its  weight,  without  adding 
to  its  value.  The  most  common  means  employed  for 
this  purpose  is  water,  which  may  be  added,  in  some 
cases,  in  considerable  quantities,  without  greatly  di- 
minishing the  consistence  of  the  soap. 

13.  This  fraud  may  be  detected  by  letting  the  soap 
lie  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  atmosphere.     The 
water  will  thus  be  evaporated,  and  its  quantity  can 
be  known  by  weighing  the  soap,  after  its  loss  of  the 
superfluous  liquid.      To  prevent  evaporation,  while 
the  soap  remains  on  hand,  it  is  said,  that  some  deal- 
ers keep  it  in  saturated  solutions  of  common  salt. 
Another  method  of  adulteration  is  found  in  the  use  of 
pulverized  lime,  gypsum,  or  pipe-clay.     These  sub- 
stances, however,  can  be  easily  detected  by  means  of 
a  solution  in  alcohol,  which  precipitates  them. 

14.  The  process  of  manufacturing  soft  soap,  differs 
but  little  in  its  details  from  that  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraphs.     The  chief  difference  consists  in 
omitting  the  use  of  salt.     Soft  soap,  therefore,  is  com. 
posed  of  a  greater  proportion  of  water,  and  more  al- 
kali than  is  necessary  to  saturate  the  unctuous  mat- 
ters.    Soft  soap  is  made  by  almost  every  family  in 
the  country,  from  ashes,  grease,  and  oily  matters,  re- 
served for  the  purpose. 

15.  The  celebrated  Marseilles  white  soap,  is  com 
posed  of 


Soda, 

Olive-oil, 

Water, 


Castile  soap,  of 

Soda  ........        9. 

Olive-oil,          ......      76.5. 

Water,  with  a  little  coloring  matter,       .      14.5. 

Fine  toilet-soaps  are  made  with  oil  of  almonds,  nut- 
oil,  palm-oil,  suet,  or  butter,  combined  with  soda  or 


THE      CANDL  E-M  A  K  E  R.  1  29 

potash,  according  to  their  preparation  in  a  solid  or 
pasty  state. 

16.  In  the  manufacture  of  white  soap,  the  tallow 
is  more  carefully  purified,  and  no  rosin  is  used.     In 
other  particulars,  the  process  differs  but  little  from 
that  employed  in  the  production  of  the  common  kind. 
Two  tons  of  tallow  should  yield  three  tons  of  white 
soap.      In   making   the  same  quantity  of  common 
brown  or  yellow  soap,  twelve  hundred  weight  less  is 
required,  on  account  of  the  substitution  of  that  amount 
of  yellow  rosin. 

17.  The  mottled  appearance  of  some  soaps  is  caus- 
ed by  dispersing  the  ley  through  it,  towards  the  close 
of  the  operation,  or  by  adding  a  quantity  of  sulphate 
of  iron,  indigo,  or  the  oxide  of  manganese.     Castile 
soap,  now  manufactured  in  the  greatest  perfection  at 
Marseilles,  in  France,  receives  its  beautifully  marbled 
appearance  from  the  sulphate  of  iron. 

THE   CANDLE-MAKER. 

1.  The  subject  of  the  candle-maker's  labors  may 
be  defined  to  be  a  wick,  covered  with  tallow,  wax,  or 
spermaceti,  in  a  cylindrical  form,  which  serves,  when 
lighted,  for  the  illumination  of  objects  in  the  absence 
of  the  sun.     The  business  of  candle-making  is  divi- 
ded into  two  branches  ;  the  one  is  confined  to  the 
manufacturing  of  tallow  candles,  and  the  other,  to  ma- 
king those  composed  of  wax  or  spermaceti. 

2.  The  process  of  making  candles  from  tallow,  as 
conducted  by  the  tallow-chandler,  needs  only  a  brief 
description,  since  it  differs  but  little  from  the  method 
pursued  by  families  in  the  country,  with  which  most 
persons  are  familiar.     The  difference  lies  chiefly  in 
the  employment  of  a  few  conveniences,  by  which  the 
candles  are  more  rapidly  multiplied. 

3.  The  first  part  of  the  process  consists  in  pre- 
paring a  wick,  to  serve  as  a  foundation.     The  coarse 

LJ 


130  THE      CANDL  E-M  A  K  E  R. 

and  slightly  twisted  yarn  used  for  this  purpose,  is  spun 
in  the  cotton-factories ;  and,  being  wound  into  balls, 
is,  in  that  form,  sold  to  the  tallow-chandlers,  as  well 
as  to  individuals  who  make  candles  for  their  own  con. 
sumption. 

4.  A  sufficient  number  of  threads  is  combined,  to 
form  a  wick  of  a  proper  size  ;  and,  as  they  are  wound 
from  the  balls,  they  are  measured  off,  and  cut  to  the 
proper  length,  by  a  simple  contrivance,  which  consists 
of  a  narrow  board,  a  wooden  pin,  and  the  blade  of  a 
razor.     The  pin  and  razor  are  placed  perpendicular 
to  the  board,  at  a  distance  determined  by  the  length 
of  the  proposed  wick.     The  wicks  are  next  put  upon 
cylindrical  rods,  about  three  feet  long  ;  and  a  great 
number  of  these  are  arranged  op  a  long  frame. 

5.  To  obtain  the  tallow  in  a  proper  state  for  use, 
it  is  separated  from  the  membranous  part  of  the  suet, 
by  boiling  the  latter  in  an  iron  or  copper  kettle,  and 
then  subjecting  the  cracklings  to  the  action  of  a  press 
The  substance  that  remains,  after  the  tallow  has  been 
expressed,  is  called  greaves,  which  are  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  fattening  ducks  for  market.     This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  in  the  city  of  London. 

6.  The  tried  tallow  is  prepared  for  application  to 
the  wicks,  by  heating  it  to  a  proper  temperature.     It 
is  then  poured  into  a  suitable  receptacle,  where  it  is 
kept  in  order  either  by  a  moderate  fire  underneath,  or 
by  the  occasional  addition  of  hot  tallow. 

7.  The  broaches,  as  the  sticks  with  their  wicks  are 
called,  are  taken  up,  several  at  a  time,  either  between 
the  fingers  or  by  means  of  a  simple  instrument  de. 
nominated  a  rake,  and  dipped  into  the  tallow.     They 
are  then  returned  to  the  frame,  and  suffered  to  cool, 
while  successive  broaches  are  treated  in  the  same 
way.     The  dipping  is  repeated,  until  the  candles  have 
been  thickened  to  the  proper  size. 

8.  In  the  preceding  plate,  is  represented  a  work* 


THE      CANDLE-MAKER.  131 

man  in  the  act  of  dipping  several  broaches  of  candles, 
suspended  on  a  rake,  which  he  holds  in  his  hands. 
The  mode  of  making  dipped  candles  just  described, 
is  more  generally  practised  than  any  other,  and  in 
this  manner  five  or  six  hundred  pounds  can  be  made 
by  one  hand,  in  a  single  day.  In  some  establish- 
ments, however,  a  more  complicated  apparatus  is 
used,  by  which  every  part  of  the  process  is  greatly 
expedited. 

9.  Mould  candles  are  made  very  differently.     The 
moulds  consist  of  a  frame  of  wood,  in  which  are  ar- 
ranged several  hollow  cylinders,  generally  made  of 
pewter.     At  the  lower  extremity  of  each  cylinder,  is 
a  small  hole,  for  the  passage  of  the  wick,  which  is  in- 
troduced  by  means  of  a  hook  on  the  end  of  a  wire. 
The  cotton  is  fastened  at  the  other  end,  and  placed  in 
a  perpendicular  situation  in  the  centre  of  the  shafts, 
by  means  of  a  wire,  which  passes  through  the  loops 
of  the  wicks.     The  melted  tallow,  having  been  pour, 
ed  on  the  top  of  the  wooden  frame,  descends  into  each 
mould.     After  the  candles  have  become  sufficiently 
cold,  they  are  extracted  from   the  cylinders  with  a 
bodkin,  which  is  inserted  into  the  loop  of  the  wick. 
One  person  can  thus   mould  two  or  three  hundred 
pounds  in  a  day. 

10.  Candles  are  also  made  of  bees-wax  and  sper- 
maceti ;  but  the  mode  of  their  manufacture  differs  in 
no  particular  from  that  of  common  mould  candles. 
The  wicks  for  wax-candles  are  usually  made  of  a  pe- 
culiar kind  of  cotton,  which  grows  in  Asiatic  Turkey. 

11.  Before  the  wax  is  applied  to  this  purpose,  the 
coloring  matter  is  discharged.     This  is  effected  by 
bleaching  the  wax,  in  the  following  manner.     It  is 
first  divided  into  flakes',  or  thin  laminae,  by  pouring 
it,  in  a  melted  state,  through  a  colander  upon  a  cy. 
lindrical  wheel,  which,  at  the  same  time,  is  kept  re- 
volving," while  partly  immersed  in  cold  water.     The 


132  THE      CANDLE-MAKER. 

wax,  having  been  removed  from  the  water,  is  placed 
upon  a  table  or  floor  covered  with  some  kind  of  cloth. 
Here  it  is  occasionally  sprinkled  with  water,  until 
the  bleaching  has  been  completed.  The  process  oc. 
cupies  several  weeks,  or  even  months,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  weather,  that  being  best  which  is 
most  favorable  to  a  rapid  evaporation. 

12.  Spermaceti  is  a  substance  separated  from  sperm 
oil,  which  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  whale,  called 
physeter  macrocephalus,  or  spermaceti  cachalot.     This 
oil  is  obtained  from  both  the  head  and  body  of  the  an- 
imal, but  that   procured   from    the  former  contains 
twice  the  quantity  of  spermaceti. 

13.  To  separate  the  spermaceti  from  the  oil  yield- 
ed by  the  body,  it  is  first  heated,  then  put  into  casks, 
and  suffered  to  stand  two  or  three  weeks,  in  order  to 
granulate.     The   oily  part  is  now  nitrated   through 
strainers  ;  and  the  remainder,  which  is  ca]\ed  foots,  is 
again  heated,  and  put  into  casks.     After  having  stood 
several  weeks,  these  are  put  into  bags,  and  submitted 
to  the  action  of  a  powerful  press.     The  spermaceti 
thus  obtained,  is  melted   and  moulded  into  cakes. 
The  oil  thus  separated  from  the  spermaceti,  is  called 
spring  or  fall  strained ;   because  it  is  filtered  and  ex- 
pressed only  during  those  seasons  of  the  year. 

14.  The  oil  from  the  head  of  the  whale  is  treated 
like  that  from  the  body,  in  almost  every  particular. 
The  difference  consists,  principally,  in  omitting  the 
use  of  the  strainer,  and  in  the  employment  of  strong, 
er  bags  and  a  more  powerful  press.     The  oil  obtain- 
ed from  the  head-matter,  is  called  pressed,  since  it  is 
separated  by  the  action  of  the  press  only.     It  is  also 
denominated  winter-strained,  because  the  operation  is 
performed  in  the  cold  weather. 

15.  The  spermaceti,  having  been  melted  and  mould- 
ed into  cakes,  is  reserved  until  the  succeeding  sum- 
mer, when  it  is  cut  into  thin  shavings,  by  means  of  a 


THE      CANDLE-MAKER.  133 

large  shave,  similar  to  the  spoke-shave  of  the  wheel, 
wrights,  and  again  pressed  as  before.  The  oil  of  this 
last  pressing  is  called  taut  pressed,  and  is  the  least 
valuable  kind,  since  a  slight  degree  of  cold  causes  it 
to  become  thick.  The  spermaceti  obtained  from  the 
oil  of  the  body,  and  that  from  the  head-matter,  are- 
melted  together,  and  purified  by  means  of  potash. ley. 

16.  The  sperm-oil,  thus  freed  from  the  spermaceti, 
is  extensively  used  in  lamps  as  a  means  of  illumina- 
tion ;  and,  for  many  purposes,  it  is  far  more  conve- 
nient than  tallow.     In  the  country,  lard  is  frequently 
employed  instead  of  oil,  especially  by  the  German 
population.     In  some  European  and  Asiatic  countries, 
vegetable  oils  supply  the  place  of  animal  fats,  in  this 
application. 

17.  The  origin  of  the  art  of  making  candles  is  not 
known.     It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  business  is 
comparatively  modern,  since  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
as  well  as  other  nations  of  antiquity,  employed  torch, 
es  of  pine  and  fir,  and  lamps  supplied  with  oil,  in  the 
production  of  artificial  light.     The  words  in  the  Scrip, 
tures  translated  candle,  imply  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  a  light  produced  by  some  kind  of- oil  consumed, 
in  a  lamp. 

18.  The  lamps  in  ancient  times  were  suspended  by 
a  chain  or  cord  from  the  ceiling,  or  supported  on 
stands  and  moveable  tables,  which  were  called  by  the 
Romans   lampadaria,  or  candelabra.      Many   speci- 
mens of  this  utensil  are  preserved  in  several  museums 
of  Europe,  and  some  have  lately  been  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Herculaneum. 

19.  The  Chinese  make  their  candles  from  the  tal- 
low obtained  from  the  seeds  and  capsules  of  the  tai- 
low-tree.      This   tree,  which   is  produced    in    great 
abundance  in  China,  is  said  to  grow  in  various  parts 
of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.     In  appearance,  it 
resembles  the  Lombardy  poplar. 


THE  COMB-MAKER,   AND   THE   BRUSH-MAKER 
THE    COMB-MAKER. 

1.  THE  comb  is  a  well-known  instrument,  employ, 
ed  in  cleansing,  dressing,  and  confining  the  hair.     It 
is  made  of  various  materials,  but  most  commonly  of 
tortoise-shell,  the   horns  and  hoofs  of  cattle,  ivory, 
bone,  and  several  kinds  of  hard  wood.  ' 

2.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  period  of  the 
world  at  which  it  was  introduced,  since  history  and 
tradition,  the  sources  from  which  we  obtain  informa- 
tion of  this  nature,  are  silent  with  regard  to  its  ori- 
gin.     It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  comb  is  an  in- 
strument  of  primary  necessity  ;  and   hence  it  must 
have  been  invented  in  the  earliest  ages.     This  opin- 
ion is  confirmed  by  the  fact,  that  the  comb  has  been 


THE      COMB-MAKER.  135 

frequently  found  in  use  amongst  savages,  when  first 
visited  by  civilized  men. 

3.  Combs  employed  in  fixing  the  hair,  are  made  of 
tortoise-shell,  or  of  the  horns  of  cattle.  The  genuine 
tortoise-shell  is  taken  from  the  tesludo  imbricata,  or 
hawk's-bill  turtle  ;  but  a  kind  of  shell,  inferior  in  qual- 
ity, is  obtained  from  the  testudo  caretta,  or  loggerhead 
turtle.  These  turtles  inhabit  the  seas  of  warm  and 
temperate  climates  ;  but  they  are  especially  numer- 
ous in  the  West  Indian  seas,  where  shell  is  a  valua- 
ble article  of  commerce.  That  from  St.  Domingo  is 
especially  esteemed  for  its  brilliancy  of  shade  and 
color. 

4.  The  shell  of  the  hawk's-bill  turtle  was  exten- 
sively employed  for  ornamental  purposes  by  the  re- 
fined nations  of  antiquity  ;  although  we  have  no  ac. 
count  of  its  application  to  the  manufacture  of  combs. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  decorated  with  it  the  doors 
and  pillars  of  their  houses,  as  well  as  their  beds  and 
other  furniture.     The  Egyptians  dealt  largely  with 
the  Romans  in  this  elegant  article. 

5.  The  general  length  of  the  hawk's-bill  turtle  is 
about  three  feet  from  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the  shell ; 
but  it  has  been  known  to  measure  five  feet,  and  to 
weigh  five  or  six  hundred  pounds.     In  the  Indian 
Ocean,  especially,  specimens  of  prodigious  magnitude 
are  said  to  have  occurred. 

6.  The  shell  employed  in  the  arts,  grows  upon  the 
back  and  feet  of  the  animal.     That  on  the  back,  con- 
sists of  thirteen  laminse,  or  plates,  which  lap  over 
each  other,  like  tiles  on  the  roof  of  a  house.     The 
plates  vary  in  thickness  from  one-eighth  to  one-fourth 
of  an  inch,  according  to  the  age  and  size  of  the  tur- 
tle.    The  quantity  of  merchantable  shell  obtained 
from  a  single  subject  of  the  usual  size,  is  about  eight 
pounds,  which,  at  the  usual  price,  is  worth  sixty  or 
seventy  dollars. 


136  THE     COMB-MAKER. 

7.  The  process  of  making  combs  from  the  horns 
of  cattle,  is  not  difficult  to  be  understood.     The  tips 
and  buts  are  first  cut  off  with  a  saw,  and  the  remain- 
ing  portion  is  also  divided  longitudinally  on  one  side 
with  the  same  instrument.    The  horns  are  then  soak- 
ed  for  several  days,  and  afterwards  boiled  in  oil,  to 
render  them  pliable.     They  are  next  spread  out  and 
pressed   between   hot   iron   plates.     This  operation 
clarifies  the  horn,  and  produces  a  plate  of  propei 
thickness. 

8.  After  the  plates  thus  produced,  have  been  cut  in 
pieces  corresponding  in  size  to  the  proposed  combs, 
and  when  these  have  been  shaved  to  a  suitable  thick- 
ness with   instruments  adapted   to  the  purpose,  the 
teeth  are  cut  either  with  a  twinning  saw,  as  represent- 
ed in  the  preceding  cut,  or  with  a  twinning  machine. 

9.  In  the  former  case,  the  plate  is  fastened  with  a 
wooden  clamp,  by  the  part  which  is  designed  to  be 
left  for  the  back  of  the  comb ;  and  when  twins,  or 
two  combs,  are  to  be  formed  from  one  piece,  the  other 
end  is  bent  down,  so  as  to  render  the  upper  surface 
considerably  convex.     To  this  surface  the  twinning 
saw  is  applied  by  the  hand  of  the  workman,  who 
makes  a  number  of  incisions ;  which  are  completed 
both  ways  with  twt»  different  kinds  of  saws,  and  the 
end  of  each  tooth  is  cut  from  the  back  of  the  opposite 
comb  with  an  instrument  called  a  plugging  awl. 

10.  The  twinning  machine  was  invented,  about  twen 
ty  years  ago,  by  a  Mr.  Thomas,  of  Philadelphia  ;  bu* 
it  has  been  successfully  improved  by  several  individ. 
uals  since  that  time.     It  is,  altogether,  an  ingenious 
and  useful  contrivance.     The  cutting  part  consists  of 
two  chisels,  which  are  made  to  act  on  the  plate  alter, 
nately,  and  in  a  perpendicular  direction,  each  chisel 
cutting  one  side  of  two  teeth,  and  severing  one  from 
the  opposite  back,  at  every  stroke.     It  is  impossible, 
however,  to  form  a  clear  conception  of  the  manner  in 


THE     COMB-MAKER.  »     137 

which  the  machine  operates,  except  by  actual  inspec- 
tion.  It  performs  the  work  with  great  rapidity ;  since 
from  one  to  two  hundred  dozens  of  combs  can  be  cut 
in  twelve  hours  ;  whereas,  not  one-fourth  of  that 
number  can  be  twinned  in  the  old  method,  during  the 
same  time. 

11.  After  the  teeth  have  been  rounded,  and  in 
other  respects  brought  to  the  proper  form  with  suita- 
ble instruments,  the  combs  are  polished  by  rubbing 
them  first  with  the  dust  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  brick, 
then  by  applying  them  to  a  moving  cylinder  covered 
with  buff  leather,  charged  with  rotten-stone,  ashes,  or 
brick-dust;  and,  finally,  by  rubbing  them   with  the 
hand,  charged  with  rotten-stone  and  vinegar. 

12.  The  combs  are  next  colored,  or  stained ;  and, 
as  the  tortoise-shell  is  by  far  the  best  and  most  ex- 
pensive material  for  this  kind  of  comb,  the  great  ob- 
ject of  the  manufacturer  is  to  produce  colors  as  near- 
ly resembling  those  of  the  real  shell  as  practicable. 
This  is  done  in  considerable  perfection,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : 

13.  The  combs  are  first  dipped  in  aqua-fortis,  and 
then  covered  with  a  paste  made  of  lime,  pearlash,  and 
red  lead.    To  produce  the  requisite  variety  of  shades, 
both  taste  and  judgment  are  necessary  'in  applying 
the  composition,  and  in  determining'  the  time  which  it 
should  remain  upon  the  combs.     To  give  the  combs 
a  still  stronger  resemblance  to  shell,  they  are  also  im- 
mersed for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  in  a  dye  of  Nic- 
aragua. 

14.  The  combs  having  been  covered  with  oil,  they 
are  next  heated  upon  iron  plates,  and  brought  to  the 
desired  shape  by  bending  them  upon  wooden  blocks 
with  a  woollen  list.     The  whole  process  is  finished  by 
rubbing  off  the  oil  with  a  silk  handkerchief. 

15.  The  general  process  of  making  shell  combs 
differs  but  little  from  that  which  has  been  just  de- 


138  THE     BRUSH-MAKER. 

scribed,  varying  only  in  a  few  particulars,  in  compli. 
ance  with  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  material. 

16.  On  account  of  the  great  value  of  shell,  the 
workmen  are  careful  to  make  the  most,  of  every  por- 
tion of  it ;  accordingly,  when  a  piece  falls  short  of  the 
desired  size,  it  is  enlarged  by  welding  to  it  another  of 
smaller  dimensions.     The  union  is  effected,  by  lap- 
ping  the  two  pieces  upon  each  other,  and  then  press- 
ing them  together  between  two  plates  of  hot  iron. 
The  heat  of  the  iron  is  prevented  from  injuring  the 
shell,  by  the  interposition  of  a  wet  linen  cloth,  and  by 
immersing  the  whole  in  hot  water.    In  a  similar  man- 
ner, broken   combs  are  often  mended;  and  by  the 
same  method,  two  pieces  of  horn  can  also  be  joined 
together. 

17.  Both  horn  and  shell  combs  are  often  stamped 
with  figures,  and  otherwise  ornamented  with  carved 
work.     In  the  latter  case,  the  ornaments  are  produ- 
ced, by  removing  a  part  of  the  material  with  a  saw 
and  graver.     The  saw  employed  is  not  more  than 
the  twelfth  of  an  inch  in  width  ;  and,  being  fastened  to 
a  frame,  it  is  moved  up  and  down,  with  great  rapidity, 
by  means  of  the  foot,  while  the  part  of  the  comb  to  be 
cut  away  is  applied  to  the  teeth.     The  operator  is 
guided  in  the  work  by  a  pattern,  which  has  been  struck 
on  paper  from  an  engraved  plate. 

18.  Combs  for  dressing  and  cleansing  the  hair,  are 
made  of  horn,  shell,  bone,  ivory,  and  wood ;  but  it  is 
unnecessary  t6  be  particular  in  describing  the  manner 
in  which  every  kind  of  comb  is  manufactured.     We 
will  only  add,  that  the  teeth  of  fine  ivory  and  bone 
combs  are  cut  with  a  buzz,  or  circular  saw,  which, 
fastened  to  a  mandrel,  is  moved  in  a  lathe. 

THE    BRUSH-MAKER. 

1.  There  are  few  manufactured  articles  in  more 
general  use  than  brushes.    This  has  arisen  from  their 


THE    BRUSH-MAKER.  139 

great  utility,  and  the  low  prices  at  which  they  can  be 
purchased.  The  productions  of  the  brush-maker's 
labor  are  denominated  variously,  according  to  the 
purposes  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied. 

2.  The  operations  connected  with  this  business  are 
very  simple,  as  there  is   scarcely  a  tool  employed 
which  is  not  familiar  to  every  other  class  of  mechan- 
ics.    The  brush-maker,  however,  does  not  manufac- 
ture every  part  of  the  brush.    He  procures  his  wood- 
en  stocks  and  handles  from  various  sources,  but  chiefly 
from  the  turner,  and  bone  handles,  from  the  tooth- 
brush handle-maker. 

3.  The  first  part  of  the  process  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  belonging  particularly  to  the  brush-maker, 
consists  in  boring  the  holes  for  the  reception  of  the 
bristles.     This  is  done  with  a  lit  of  a  proper  size, 
which  is  kept  in  motion  with  a  lathe,  while  the  wood 
is  brought  against  it  with  both  hands.     To  enable  the 
operator  to  make  the  holes  in  the  right  place  and  in 
the  proper  direction,  a  pattern  is  applied  to  the  hither 
side  of  the  stock. 

4.  The   greater  part  of  the   bristles  used  by  the 
brush-makers  in  the  United  States,  are  imported  from 
Russia  and  Germany.     Large   quantities,  however 
are  obtained  from  Pennsylvania,  and  some  parts  of 
the  Western  States.     American  bristles  are  worth 
from  thirty  to  fifty  cents  per  pound,  a  price  sufficient, 
ly  high,  one  would  suppose,  to  induce  the  farmers  to 
preserve  them,  when  they  butcher  their  swine.    Were 
this  generally  done,  a  tolerable  supply  of  the  shorter 
kinds  of  bristles  might  be  obtained  in  our  own  country. 

5.  When  the  bristles  come  into  the  hands  of  the 
brush-maker,  the  long  and  short,  and  frequently  those 
of  different  colors,  are  mixed  together.     These  are 
first  assorted,  according  to  color ;   and  those   of  a 
whitish  hue  are  afterwards  washed  with  potash-ley 
and  soap,  to  free  them  from  animal  fat,  and  tnen 


140  THE     BRUSH-MAKER. 

whitened  by  bleaching  them  with  the  fumes  of  brim 
stone. 

6.  The  bristles  are  next  combed  with  a  row  of 
steel  teeth,  for  the  purpose  of  placing  them  in  a  par» 
allel  direction,  and  with  a  view  of  depriving  them  of 
the  short  hair  which  may  be  intermixed.     The  work 
man,  immediately  after  combing  a  handful,  assorts  it 
into  separate  parcels  of  different  lengths.     This  is 
very  readily  done,  by  pulling  out  the  longest  bristles 
from  the  top,  until  those  which  remain  in  the  hand 
have  been  reduced  to  a  certain  length,  which  is  de- 
termined by  a  gauge  marked  with  numbers.    At  each 
pulling,  the  handful  is  reduced  in  height  near  half  an 
inch. 

7.  The  stocks  and  the  bristles  having  been  thus 
prepared,  they  are  next  fastened  together.     This  is 
effected  either  with  wire  or  by  a  composition  of  tar  and 
rosin.     The  wire  is  used  in  all  cases  in  which  the 
fibre  is  doubled  ;  but  when  the  bristles  are  required 
,'n  their  full  length,  as  in  sweeping-brushes,  the  adhe- 
sive substance  is  employed. 

8.  It  is  superfluous  to  enter  into  detail,  to  show  the 
manner  in  which  the  wire  and  composition  are  ap- 
plied in  fixing  the  bristles,  as  any  person,  with  an  or- 
dinary degree  of  observation,  can  readily  comprehend 
the  whole,  by  examining  the  different  kinds  of  brushes 
which  are  met  with  in  every  well-regulated  house- 
hold.    The  bristles,  after  having  been  fixed  to  the 
stock  or  handle,  are  trimmed  with  the  shears  or  knife, 
according  as  they  are  required  to  be  equal  or  unequal 
in  length. 

9.  The  brush  is  next  handed  over  to  the  finisher, 
who  applies  to  the  back  of  the  stock  a  thin  veneer 
of  wood,  which  secures  the  wire  against  the  oxidizing 
influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  gives  to  the  brush  a 
finished  appearance.     The  stock,  together  with  the 
veneer,  is  then  brought  tc  the  desired  shape  with  suit. 


THE     BRUSH-MAKER.  141 

able  instruments,  polished  with  sand-paper,  and  cov- 
ered with  varnish. 

16.  Those  brushes  which  the  manufacturer  designs 
to  be  ornamented,  are  sent  in  great  quantities  to  the 
ornamenter,  who  applies  to  them  various  figures,  in 
gold  or  Dutch  leaf,  japan  or  bronze,  and  sometimes 
prints,  which  have  been  struck  on  paper  from  en- 
graved plates. 


•THE    TAVERN-KEEPER. 

1.  A  HOUSE  in  which  travellers  are  entertained  is 
denominated   a  tavern,  inn,   coffee-house,   hotel,  or 
house  of  public  entertainment ;  and  an  individual  who 
keeps  a  house  of  this  description,  is  called  an  inn- 
keeper  or   tavern-keeper.     Of  these  establishments 
there  are  various  grades,  from  the  log  cabin  with  a 
single  room,  to  the  splendid  and  commodious  edifice 
with  more  than  a  hundred  chambers. 

2.  This   business   is  one  of  great  public  utility ; 
since,  by  this  means,  travellers  obtain  necessary  re- 
freshments and  a  temporary  home,  with  very  little 
trouble  on  their  part,  and  that,  in  most  cases,  for  a 
reasonable  compensation.    This  is  especially  the  case 
in  the  United  States,  where  the  public  houses,  taking 
them  together,  are  said  to  be  superior  to  those  of  any 
other  country. 


THE     TAVERN-KEEPER.  143 

3.  Travellers,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  either 
carried  with  them  the  means  of  sustenance,  and  pro- 
tection  from  the  weather,  or  relied  upon  the  hospital, 
ity  of  strangers  ;  but,  as  the  intercourse  between  dif- 
ferent places  for  the   purposes   of  trade,  increased, 
houses   of   public    entertainment   were    established, 
which  at  first  were  chiefly  kept  by  women. 

4.  The  people  of  antiquity,  in  every  age  and  na- 
tion, whether  barbarous  or  civilized,  were,  however, 
remarkable  for  their  hospitality.    We  find  this  virtue 
enjoined  in  the  Mosaic  writings,  and  scriptures  gener- 
ally, in  the  poems  of  Homer,  as  well  as  in  other  dis- 
tinguished writings,   which  have   descended  to  our 
times.     The   heathen  nations  were   rendered  more 
observant  of  the  rites  of  hospitality  by  the  belief,  that 
their  fabulous  gods  sometimes  appeared  on  earth  in 
human  shape ;  and  the  Jews  and  ancient  Christians, 
by  the  circumstance,  that  Abraham  entertained  angels 
unawares. 

5.  On  account  of  the  occasional  acts  of  violence 
committed  by  both  the  guest,  and  the  master  of  the 
house,  it  became  necessary  to  take  some  precautions 
for  their  mutual  safety.     When,  therefore,  a  stranger 
applied  for  lodgings,  it  was   customary  among  the 
Greeks  for  both  to  swear  by  Jupiter,  that  they  would 
do  each  other  no  harm.     This  ceremony  took  place, 
while  each  party  stood  with  his  foot  placed  on  his 
own  side  of  the  threshold  ;   and  a  violation  of  this 
oath  by  either  party,  excited  against  the  offender  the 
greatest  horror. 

6.  The  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  common  with  the 
people  of  many  other  nations,  were  in  the  habit  of 
making  arrangements  with  persons  at  a  distance  from 
their  homes,  for   mutual   accommodation,  when  ei- 
ther party  might  be  in  the  vicinity  of  the  other.     In 
these  agreements,  the  contracting  parties   included 
their  posterity,  and  delivered  to  each  other  tokens, 


144  THE     TAVERN-KEEPER. 

which  might  be  afterwards  exhibited  in  proof  of  an- 
cient  ties  of  hospitality  between  the  families.  They 
swore  fidelity  to  each  other  by  the  name  of  Jupiter, 
who  was  surnamed  the  Hospitable  ;  because  he  was 
supposed  to  be  the  protector  of  strangers,  and  the 
avenger  of  their  wrongs. 

7.  This  relation  was  considered  a  very  intimate 
one,  especially  by  the  Romans  ;    and,  in  their  lan- 
guage, it  was  called  hospilium.  or  jus  hospitii ;  hence, 
the  guest  and  entertainer  were  both  called  hostes,  a 
word  from  which  host  is  derived,  which  is  employed 
to  designate  both  the  landlord  and  the  guest.     The 
Roman  nobility  used  to  build,  for  the  reception  of 
strangers,  apartments  called  hospiiatia,  on  the  right 
and  left  of  the  main  building  of  their  residence. 

8.  During  the  middle  ages,  also,  hospitality  was 
very  commonly  practised ;    and   the  virtue  was  not 
considered  one  of  those  which  might  be  observed  or 
neglected  at  pleasure  ;    the  practice  of  it  was   even 
enjoined  by  statute,  in  many  countries,  as  a  positive 
duty,  which  could  not  be  neglected  with  impunity. 
In  some  cases,  the  moveable  goods  of  the  inhospita- 
ble person  were  confiscated,  and  his  house  burned. 
If  an  individual  had  not  the  means  of  entertaining  his 
guest,  he  was  permitted  to  steal,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  requisite  supply. 

9.  The  nobles  of  Europe,  during  this  period,  were 
generally  distinguished  for  their  cordial  entertainment 
of  strangers,  and  their  immediate  adherents.     Their 
extraordinary  liberality  arose,  in  part,  from  the  gen- 
eral customs  of  the  age,  and  partly  from  a  desire  to 
attach  to  their  interests  as  great  a  number  of  retain, 
ers  as  possible,  with  a  view  to  maintain  'or  increase 
their  political  importance.     Strangers  were  also  en- 
tertained  at  the  monasteries,  which  were  numerous 
in   almost   every  kingdom  of  Europe.     Several  of 
Jiese  institutions  were  established  in  solitary  places, 


THE     TAVERN-KEEPER.  145 

with  the  express  purpose  of  relieving  travellers  in 
distress. 

10.  It  is  evident,  that  the  arrangements  for  mutual 
accommodation,  and  the  hospitable  character  of  the 
ancients,  were  unfavorable  to  the  business  of  keeping 
tavern  ;    but  the  free  intercourse   between  different 
nations,  which  arose  from  the  Crusades,  and  the  re- 
vival of  commerce,  contributed  greatly  to  the  habit 
of  regularly  entertaining  strangers  for  a  compensa- 
tion, and  led  to  the  general  establishment  of  inns. 

11.  These  inns,  however,  were  not,  at  first,  well 
supported ;  inasmuch  as  travellers  had  been  long  ac- 
customed to  seek  for  lodgings  in  private  houses.     In 
Scotland,  inns  were  established  by  law,  A.D.  1424  ; 
and,  to  compel  travellers  to  resort  to  them,  they  were 
forbidden,  under  a  penalty  of  forty  shillings,  to  use 
private  accommodations,  where  these   public  houses 
were  to  be  found. 

12.  How  far  legislative  enactments  have  been  em- 
ployed  for  the  establishment  of  inns  in  other  countries, 
we  have  not  been  able  to  learn,  as  the  authorities  to 
which  we  have  referred  for  information  on  this  point 
are  silent   with  regard   to   it.     We  know,  however, 
that  laws  have  been  made  in  almost  every  part  of  Eu- 
rope, as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  with  the  view  of 
compelling  the  landlord  to  preserve  proper  order,  and 
to  accommodate  his  customers  at  reasonable  charges. 

13.  In  the  United  States,  and  in  all  other  commer- 
cial countries,  this  business  has  become  one  of  great 
importance,  not  only  to  the  individuals  who  have  en- 
gnged  in  it,  but  also  to  the  community  in  general. 
Within  the  present  century,  the  amount  of  travelling 
has  greatly  increased,  and  the  excellence  of  the  pub- 
lic houses  has  advanced  in  the  same  ratio.     Some  of 
these  establishments  in  the  cities  and  large  towns,  are 
among  the  most  extensive  and  splendid  edifices  of 
the  country  ;  and,  in  every  place  through  which  there 

If 


146  THE     TAVERN-KEEPER. 

is  much  travelling,  they  are  usually  equal  or  superioi 
to  the  private  dwellings  of  the  neighborhood. 

14.  The  business  of  keeping  tavern,  however,  is 
not  always  confined  to  the  proper  object  of  entertain- 
ing travellers,  or  persons  at  some  distance  from  home. 
A  public  house  is  frequently  the  resort  of  the  people 
who  live  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  arid  is  often  the 
means  of  doing  much  injury,  by  increasing  dissipation. 

15.  In  all  cases  in  which  ardent  spirits  are  pro- 
posed  to  be  sold,  a  license  must  be  obtained  from  the 
public  authorities,  for  which  must  be  paid  the  sum 
stipulated  by  law ;  but  any  person    is  permitted  to 
lodge  travellers,  and  to  supply  them  with  every  neces. 
sary  means  of  cheer  and  comfort  for  a  compensation, 
without  the  formality  of  a  legal  permission  ;  yet,  a 
license  to  sell  liquors  is  called  a  tavern-license  ;  be- 
cause most  tavern-keepers  regard  the  profits  on  the 
sale  of  ardent  spirits  as  one  of  their  chief  objects. 

16.  A  public  house  in  which  no  strong  drink  is 
sold,  is  called  a  temperance  tavern  ;  and  such  estab- 
lishments are  becoming  common ;  but  tney  are  not, 
at  present,  so  well  supported  as  those  in  which  the 
popular  appetite  is  more  thoroughly  complied  with. 
The  time,  however,  may  not  be  far  distant,  when  the 
public  sentiment  will  undergo  such  a  salufary  change, 
that  the  tavern-keepers  generally  will  find  it  their  best 
policy  to  relinquish  the  sale  of  this  poisonous  article. 

17.  As  travellers  often  apply  to  the  bar  for  "  some- 
thing to  drink,"  merely  to  remunerate  the  landlord 
for  the  use  of  his  fire,  or  some  little  attention,  the 
friends  of  temperance  would  essentially  promote  their 
cause,  by  encouraging  the  practice  oc  oayirg  for  a 
glass  of  water,  or  some  trifle  of  this  Kind.      This 
would  increase  the  number  of  temperance  taverns, 
and,  perhaps,  be  the  means  of  preventing  many  gen- 
erous people  from  forming  those  dissipated  habits, 
which  are  so  often  attended  with  ruinous  results. 


THE    HUNTER. 

1.  HUNTING  and  fishing  are  usually  considered  the 
primary  occupations  of  man  ;  not  because  they  were 
the  first  employments  in  v/hich  he  engaged,  but  be- 
cause they  are  the  chief  means  of  human  sustenance 
among  savage  nations. 

2.  The  great  and  rapid  increase  of  the  inferior  an- 
imals,  and,  probably,  the  diminished  fertility  of  the 
soil  after  the  deluge,  caused  many  branches  of  the 
family  of  Noah  to  forsake  the  arts  of  civilized  life, 
especially  after  the  dispersion  caused  by  the  confusion 
of  tongues. 

3.  Many  of  these  families,  or  tribes,  continued  in 
this  barbarous  state  for  several  ages,  or  until  their  in- 
crease of  numbers,  and  the  diminished  quantky  of 
wild  game,  rendered  a  supply  of  food  from  the  objects 


148  THE      HUNTER. 

of  the  chase  extremely  precarious.  Necessity  then 
compelled  them  to  resort  to  the  domesticatioa  of  cer- 
tain animals,  and  to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  But 
the  practice  of  hunting  wild  animals  is  not  confined 
to  the  savage  state ;  as  it  is  an  amusement  prompted 
by  a  propensity  inherent  in  human  nature. 

4.  The  earliest  historical  notice  of  this  sport  is 
found  in  the  tenth  chapter  of  Genesis,  in  which  Nim- 
rod  is  styled,  "  a  mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord." 
So  great  was  his  prowess  in-  this  absorbing  pursuit, 
that  he  was  proverbially  celebrated  on  this  account 
even  in  the  time  of  Moses.     Nimrod  is  the  first  king 
of  whom  we  read  in  history  ;  and  it  is  by  no  means 
improbable,  that  his  skill  and  intrepidity  in  subduing 
the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest,  contributed  largely  to- 
wards elevating  him  to  the  regal  station. 

5.  Although  the  spoils  of  the  chase  are  of  little  con- 
sequence to  men,  after  they  have  united  in  regular 
communities,  in  which  the  arts  of  civilized  life  are 
cultivated ;  yet  the  propensity  to  hunt  wild  animals 
continues,  and  displays  itself  more  or  less  among  all 
classes  of  men. 

6.  The  reader  of  English  history  will  recollect,  that 
William  the  Conqueror,  who  began  his  reign  in  the 
year  1066,  signalized  his  passion  for  this  amusement, 
by  laying  waste,  and  converting,  into  one  vast  hunt- 
ing-ground, the  entire  county  of  Hampshire,  contain- 
ing, at  that  time,  no  less  than  twenty-two  populous 
parishes.     Severe  laws  were  also  enacted,  prohibiting 
the  destruction  of  certain  kinds  of  game,  except  by  a 
few   persons   having  specified  qualifications.     With 
some  modifications,  these  laws  are  still  in  force  in 
Great  Britain. 

7.  In  other  countries  of  Europe,  also,  large  tracts 
have  been  appropriated  by  the  kings  and  nobles  to  the 
same  object.     This  tyrannical  monopoly  is  attempted 
to  be  justified  by  the  unreasonable  pretension,  that  aU 


THE     HUNTER.  149 

whd  animals  belong,  of  right,  to  the  monarch  of  the 
country,  where  they  roam. 

8.  The  quadrupeds   nr^ost  hunted  in  Europe,  are 
the  stag,  the  hare,  the  fox,  the  wolf,  and  the  wild  boar. 
These  beasts  are  pursued  either  on  account  of  their 
intrinsic  value,  or  for  sport,  or  to  rid  the  country  of 
their  depredations.     In  some  instances,  all  three  of 
these  objects  may  be  united.     The  method  of  captur- 
ing or  killing  the  animals  is  various,  according  to 
the  character  and  objects  of  the  persons  engaged 
in  it. 

9.  In  Asia,  the  wolf  is  sometimes  hunted  with  the 
eagle  ;  but,  in  Europe,  the  strongest  greyhounds  are 
employed  to  run  him  down.     This  task,  however,  is 
one  of  extreme  difficulty,  as  he  can  easily  run  twenty 
miles  upon  a  stretch,  and  is  besides  very  cunning  in 
the  means  of  eluding  his  pursuers.     Chasing  the  fox 
on  horseback,  with  a  pack  of  hounds,  is  considered 
an  animating  and  manly  sport,  both  in  Europe  and  in 
North  America. 

10.  The  most  prominent  victim  of  the  hunter,  m 
Africa,  is  the  lion.     He  is  usually  sought  in  small 
parties  on  horseback  with  dogs  ;  but  sometimes,  when 
one  of  these  formidable  animals  has  been  discovered, 
the  people  of  the  neighborhood  assemble,  and  encircle 
him  iii  a  ring,  three  or  four  miles  in  circumference. 
The  circle  is  gradually  contracted,  until  the  hunters 
have  approached  sufficiently  near  to  the  beast,  when 
they  dispatch  him,  usually  with  a  musket-ball. 

11.  In  the  southern  parts  of  Asia,  tiger-hunting  is 
a  favorite   amusement.      Seated  upon   an   elephant, 
trained  especially  for  the  purpose,  the  hunter  is  in 
comparative  safety,  while  he  pursues  and  fires  upon 
the  tiger,  until  his  destruction  is  effected. 

12.  The  white  bear  and  the  grisly  bear  are  the 
most  formidable  animals  in  North  America  ;  yet  they 
are  industriously  hunted  bv  both  Indians  and  white 


150  .  THEHUNTER. 

men,  on  account  of  the  value  of  their  flesh  and  skins, 
Bisons,  or,  as  they  are  erroneously  called,  buffaloes, 
are  found  in  great  numbers,  in  the  vast  prairies  which 
occur  between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains. They  are  commonly  met  with  in  droves,  which 
sometimes  amount  to  several  thousands. 

13.  When  the  Indian  hunters  propose  to  destroy 
these  animals,  they  ride  into  the  midst  of  a  herd,  and 
dispatch  them  with  repeated  wounds  ;  or,  they  get  a 
drove  between  themselves  and  a  precipice,  and,  by 
shouting  and  yelling,  cause  the  animals  to  crowd  each 
other  off  upon  the  rocks  below.      In  this  manner, 
great  numbers  are  disabled  and  taken  at  once.     The 
hunters,  at  other  times,  drive  the  bisons  into  inclo- 
«ures,  and  then   shoot  them  down  at  their  leisure. 
The  hide  of  this  animal  is  dressed  with  the  hair  ad- 
hering  to  it ;  and  skins,  in  this  state,  are  used  by  the 
savages  for  beds,  and  by  the  white  people,  in  wagons, 
sleighs,  and  stages. 

14.  North  America,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Asia, 
have  been,  and,  in  some  parts,  still  are,  well  stodced 
with  fur-clad  animals  ;  and  these  are  the  principal 
objects  of  pursuit,  with  those  who  make  hunting  their 
regular  business.     Some  of  these  animals  were  com- 
mon in  every  part  of  North  America,  when  this  por- 
tion of  the  western  continent  was  first  visited  by  Eu- 
ropeans ;  and  a  trade  in  peltries,  more  or  less  exten- 
sive, has  been  carried  on  with  the  natives,  ever  since 
the  first  settlement  of  the  country. 

15.  For  the  purpose  of  conducting  this  trade  with 
advantage,  a  company  was  formed  in  England,  in 
1670,  by  Prince  Rupert  and  others,  to  whom  a  char- 
ter was  granted,  securing  to  them  the  exclusive  priv- 
ilege of  trading  with  the  Indians  about  Hudson's  Bay. 
Another  company  was  formed  in  1783—4,  called  the 
North- West  Fur  Company.     Between  these  compa- 
nies, there  soon  arose  dissensions  and  hostilities,  and 


THE     HUNTER.  151 

many  injuries  were  mutually  inflicted  by  the  adhe- 
rents  of  the  parties.  Both  associations,  however,  were 
at  length  united,  under  the  title  of  the  Hudson's  Bay 
For  Company.  The  Indian  trade,  on  the  great  lakes 
and  the  Upper  Mississippi,  has  long  been  in  possess, 
ion  of  the  North  American  Fur  Company.  Most  of 
the  directors  of  this  company  reside  in  the  city  of 
New-York. 

16.  The  companies  just  mentioned  supply  the  In- 
dians with  coarse  blue,  red,  and  fine  scarlet  cloths, 
coarse  cottons,  blankets,  ribands,  beads,  kettles,  fire- 
arms, hatchets,  knives,  ammunition,  and  other  articles 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  hunters,  receiving,  in  re- 
turn, the  skins  of  the  muskrat,  beaver,  otter,  martin, 
bear,  deer,  lynx,  fox,  &c. 

17.  The  intercourse  with  the  Indians  is  managed 
by  agents,  called  clerks,  who  receive  from  the  com- 
pany a  salary,  ranging  from  three  to  eight  hundred 
dollars  per  annum.     The  merchandise  is  conveyed  to 
the  place  of  trade,  in  the  autumn,  by  the  aid  of  Ca- 
nadian  boatmen   and    half-Indians.     The  most  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  goods  are  sold  to  the  Indians 
on  a  credit,  with  the  understanding  of  their  making 
payment  in  the  following  spring  ;  but,  as  many  neg- 
lect this  duty,  a  high  price  is  affixed  to  the  articles 
thus  intrusted  to  savage  honesty.    The  clerk  furnish- 
es the  debtor  with  a  trap,  having  his  own  name  stamp- 
ed upon  it,  to  show  that  the  hunter  has  pledged  every 
thing  which  may  be  caught  in  it. 

18.  Each  clerk  is  supplied  with  four  laborers  and 
an  interpreter.     The  latter  attends  to  the  store  in  the 
absence  of  the  clerk,  or  watches  the  debtors  in  the 
Indian  camp,  lest  they  again  sell  the  produce  of  their 
winter's  labors.     The  peltries,  when  obtained  by  the 
clerk,  are  sent  to  the  general  agent  of  the  company. 

19.  The  fur  trade  is  also  prosecuted,  to  some  ex- 
tent, by  a  class  of  men  in  Missouri,  who  proceed 


152  THE     HUNTER. 

from  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  in  bodies  comprising  from 
fifty  to  two  hundred  individuals.  After  having  ascend- 
ed the  Missouri  river,  or  some  of  its  branches,  and, 
perhaps,  after  having  passed  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
they  separate,  and  pursue  the  different  animals  on 
their  own  individual  account,  either  alone  or  in  small 
parties.  The  Indians  regard  these  men  as  intruders 
on  their  territories  ;  and,  when  a  favorable  oppor- 
tunity is  presented,  they  frequently  surprise  and  mur- 
der the  wandering  hunters,  and  retain  possession  of 
their  property. 

20.  In    consequence    of  the    unremitted    warfare 
which  has,  for  a  long  time,  been  carried  on  against 
the  wild   animals  of  North  America,  their  number 
has  been  greatly  diminished ;  and,  in  many  parts,  al- 
most every  species  of  the  larger  quadrupeds,  and  the 
fur-clad  animals,  has  been  exterminated.     Even  on 
the  Mississippi,  and  the  great  lakes,  the  latter  descrip- 
tion of  animals  has  been  so  much  reduced  in  number, 
that  the  trade  in  peltries,  in  those  parts,  has  become 
of  little  value.     Another  half  century  will,  probably, 
nearly  terminate  the  trade  in  every  part  of  North 
America. 

21.  The  fur  trade  was  prosecuted  with  consider- 
able success,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century, 
principally  by  the  English,  on  the  north-west  coast 
of  America,  and  the  adjacent  islands.     The  peltries 
obtained  by  these  enterprising  traders,  were  carried 
directly  to  China.     The  trade  was  interrupted  for  a 
while  by  the  Spaniards,  who  laid  claim  to  those  re- 
gions,  and  seized  the  British  traders  engaged  there, 
together  with  the  property  in  their  possession.     This 
affair,  however,  was  afterwards  amicably  adjusted  by 
the  Spanish  and  English  governments  ;  and  the  whole 
trade,  from  California  north  and  to  China,  was  open- 
ed to  the  latter. 

22.  The  fur  trade,  in  those  parts,  is  now  chiefly  in 


THE     HUNTER.  153 

tke  hands  of  the  Russian  Company  in  America,  which 
has  a  capital  of  a  million  of  dollars  invested  in  the 
business.  Most  of  the  persons  owning  the  stock,  are 
merchants,  residing  at  Irkutsk,  a  town  of  Siberia, 
which  is  the  centre  of  the  fur  trade  of  that  country. 
The  skins  obtained  in  Russian  America  are  chiefly 
procured  from  the  sea-otter,  and  several  species  of 
seal,  together  with  those  from  foxes,  of  a  blue,  black, 
and  gray  color,  which  are  brought  from  the  interior. 
Parties  of  Russian  hunters  have  already  passed  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  interfered  with  the  trade  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  The  fur  trade  of  Si- 
beria  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  China. 

23.  The  chief  objects  of  the  hunters  in  Siberia,  are 
the  black  fox,  the  sable,  the  ermine,  the  squirrel,  the 
beaver,  and  the  lynx.     In  the  region  near  the  Frozen 
Ocean,  are  also  caught  blue  and  white  foxes.     Sibe- 
ria is  the  place  of  banishment  for  the  Russian  empire  ; 
and  the  exiles  were  formerly  required  to  pay  to  the 
government  an  annual  tribute  of  a  certain  number  of 
sable-skins.     The  conquered  tribes  in  Siberia,  were 
also  compelled  to  pay  their  taxes  in  the  skins  of  the 
fox  and  sable  ;  but  now,  those  of  less  value,  or  money, 
are  frequently  substituted. 

24.  Although  the  skins  of  beasts  were   the   first 
means  employed  to  clothe  the   human  body,  yet  it 
does  not  appear  that  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
the  other  refined  nations  of  antiquity,  ever  made  use 
of  furs  for  this   purpose.     The   custom   of  wearing 
them,  originated  in  those  regions,  where  the  fur-clad 
animals  were  numerous,  and  where  the  seventy  of 
the  climate  required  this  species  of  clothing.     The 
use  of  furs  was  introduced  into  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe  by  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Huns,  and  other  bar- 
barous  nations;  which  overran  the  Roman  empire. 


THE    FISHERMAN. 

1.  ALTHOUGH  permission  was  given  by  the  Deity, 
immediately  after  the  flood,  to  employ  for  human  sus- 
tenance  "every  moving  thing  that  liveth,"  yet  it  is 
not  probable,  that  fishes  were  used  as  food,  to  any 
considerable  extent,  for  several  centuries  afterwards. 
It  is  stated  by  Plutarch,  that  the  Syrians  and  Greeks, 
in  very  ancient  times,  abstained  from  fish.     Mene- 
laus,  one  of  Homer's  heroes,  complains,  on  a  certain 
occasion,  that  his  companions  had  been  reduced  by 
hunger  to  the  necessity  of  eating  fish ;  and  there  is 
no  mention  in  Homer,  that  the  Grecians,  at  any  time, 
used  this  food  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  although,  for  the 
ten  years  during  which  that  contest  was  carried  on, 
their  camp  was  on  the  sea-shore. 

2.  Moses,  the  Jewish  lawgiver,  is  very  explicit  in 


THE      FISHERMAN.  155 

designating  the  land  animals  which  might  be  used  by 
the  Israelites  as  food  ;  and  he  was  equally  so  with 
regard  to  the  animals  which  inhabit  the  waters.  We 
learn,  from  the  twelfth  chapter  of  Numbers,  that  the 
children  of  Israel,  while  journeying  to  the  land  of 
Canaan,  "  remembered  the  fish  which  they  did  eat," 
in  Egypt. 

3.  This  is  the  earliest  notice  on  record,  of  the  ac- 
tual use  of  that  class  of  animals  for  food  ;  although  it 
is  probable,  that  they  had  been  applied  to  this  pur- 
pose,  in  Egypt,  six  or  seven  hundred  years  before 
that  period,  or  soon  after  the  settlement  of  this  coun- 
try'by  the  descendants  of  Ham. 

4.  For  a  long  time  before  the  advent  of  Our  Sa. 
viour,  fishing  had  been  a  regular  business,  even  in  Ju- 
dea ;  and  from  the  class  of  men  who  followed  this 
occupation,  he  chose  several  of  his  apostles.     At  the 
time  just  mentioned,  fish  had  become  a  common  ar- 
ticle of  diet,  in  all  parts  of  the  world  subject  to  the 
Roman  power,  and  probably  in  almost  all  other  coun- 
tries. 

5.  The  methods  of  catching  fish,  pursued  in  an- 
cient times,  were  similar  to  those  of  the  present  day  ; 
for  then,  as  now,  they  were  caught  with  a  hook,  with 
a  spear,  and  with  a  seine  or  net,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  animal,  and  the  nature  of  the  fishing 
station.     But  the  great  improvements  in  navigation, 
made  since  the  twelfth  century,  have  given  modern 
fishermen  the  command  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans,  and,  consequently,  a  knowledge  of  many  spe- 
cies of  fish  which  were  formerly  unknown. 

6.  According   to    Linnaeus,  the    great  naturalist, 
about  four  hundred  species  of  fish  have  coroe  to  our 
knowledge ;  and  he  presumes,  that  those  which  re- 
main unknown  are  still  more   numerous.     Notwith- 
standing this  great  variety,  the  chief  attention  of  fish- 
ermen is  confined  to  a  few  kinds,  which  are  the  most 


156  THE      FISHERMAN. 

easily  caught,  and  which  are  the  most  valuable  when 
taken. 

7.  Every  place  which  contains  many  inhabitants, 
and  which  is  located  in  the  vicinity  of  waters  well 
stored  with   fish,  is  supplied  with  these  animals  by 
men  who  make  fishing  a  business ;  still,  these  fish- 
eries may  be  considered  local  in  their  benefits,  and 
perhaps  do  not  require  particular  notice  in  this  arti- 
cle.    We  will  only  remark,  therefore,  that,  in  large 
cities,  fresh  fish  are  sold  either  in  a  fish-market,  or 
are  hawked  about  the  streets.     The  wives  of  the  fish- 
ermen are  very  often  employed  in  selling  the  fish 
caught  by  their  husbands.     The  fisheries  which  are 
of  the  greatest  consequence,  in  general  commerce, 
are  those  which  relate  to  herring,  mackerel,  salmon, 
seal,  and  whale. 

8.  Herring  Fishery. — There  are  several  species  of 
herring  ;  but,  of  these,  four  kinds  only  are  of  much 
importance,  viz.,  the  common  herring,  the  shad,  the 
hard  head,  and  the  alewife ;  of  which,  the  first  is  the 
most  valuable,  being  by  far  the  most  numerous,  and 
being,  also,  better  adapted  than  the  others  for  preser- 
vation. 

9.  The  winter  residence  of  the  common  herring  is 
within  the  arctic  circle,  whence  it  emigrates,  in  the 
spring,  to  more  southern  portions  of  the  globe,  for  the 
purpose  of  depositing  its  spawn.     The  first  body  of 
these  migratory  animals,  appears  on  the  coasts  of 
both  Europe  and  America,  in  April,  or  about  the  first 
of  May  ;    but  these  are  only  the  precursors  of  the 
grand  shoals  which  arrive  in  a  few  weeks  afterwards. 

10.  Their  first  approach  is  indicated  by  the  great 
number  of  birds  of  prey,  which  follow  them  in  their 
course  ;  but,  when  the  main  body  appears,  the  num. 
her  is  so  great,  that  they  alter  the  appearance  of  the 
ocean  itself.     In  this  last  and  principal  migration,  the 
shoals  are  five  or  six  miles  in  length,  and  three  or 


THE     FISHERMAN.  157 

four  in  breadth ;  and,  before  each  of  these  columns, 
the  water  is  driven  in  a  kind  of  ripple.  Sometimes, 
the  fish  sink  together  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  and  then 
rise  again  to  the  surface,  when  they  reflect,  in  clear 
weather,  the  rays  of  the  sun,  in  a  variety  of  splendid 
colors. 

11.  These  fish  proceed  as  far  south  as  France,  on 
the  coasts  of  Europe,  and  as  far  as  Georgia,  in  Amer- 
ica, supplying  every  bay,  creek,  and  river,  which  opens 
into  the  Atlantic.      Having  deposited   their  spawn, 
generally  in   the  inland  waters,  they  return  to  their 
head-quarters  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  recruit  their 
emaciated  bodies  for  another  migration  in  the  follow- 
ing spring. 

12.  In  a  few  weeks,  the  young  ones  are  hatched 
by  the  genial  heat  of  the  sun ;  and,  as  they  are  not 
found  in  southern  waters  in  the  winter,  it  is  evident 
that  they  proceed  northward  in  the  fall,  to  their  pa- 
ternal haunts  under  the  ice,  and  thus  repair  the  vast 
destruction  of  their  race,  which  had  been  caused  by 
men,  fowl,  and  fish,  in  the  previous  season. 

13.  These  fish  are  caught  in  nearly  every  river, 
from  Maine  to  Georgia,  which  has  a  free  communi- 
cation with  the  Atlantic  ;  but  the  most  extensive  fish- 
eries  are  on  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  Rivers,  and  on 
those  which  flow  into  the  Chesapeake  Bay. 

14.  The  instrument  employed   in   catching  these 
'ish  is  called  a  seine,  which  is  a  species  of  net,  some- 
times in  length  several  hundred  fathoms,  and   of  a 
width  suiting  the  depth  of  the  water  in  which  it  is  to 
be  used.     The  two  edges  of  the  net- work  are  fasten, 
ed  each  to  a  rope ;  and,  to  cause  the  seine  to  spread 
laterally  in  the  water,  pieces  of  lead  are  fastened  to 
one  side,  and  pieces  of  cork  to  the  other. 

15  tn  spreading  the  seine  in  the  water,  one  end  is 
retained  on  land  by  a  number  of  persons,  while  the 
rest  of  it  is  strung  along  from  a  boat,  which  is  rowed 


158  THE     FISHERMAN. 

in  the' direction  from  the  shore.  The  seine  having 
been  thus  extended,  the  further  end  is  brought  round, 
in  a  sweeping  manner,  to  the  shore  ;  and  the  fish  that 
may  be  included  are  taken  into  the  boats  with  a  scoop- 
net,  or  are  hauled  out  upon  the  shore.  In  this  way, 
two  or  three  hundred  thousands  are  sometimes  taken 
at  a  single  haul.  This  fish  dies  immediately  after 
having  been  taken  from  the  water ;  hence  the  com- 
mon expression,  "  As  dead  as  a  herring." 

16.  The  herrings  are  sold,  as  soon  as  caught,  to 
people  who  come  to  the  fishing  stations  to  procure 
them  ;  or,  in  case  an  immediate  sale  cannot  be  effect- 
ed,  they  are  cured  with  salt,  and  afterwards  smoked, 
or  continued  in  brine.     In  the  Southern  states,  the 
herring  is  generally  thought  to  be  superior  to  any 
other  fish  for  the  purpose  of  salting  down ;  although 
the  shad  and  some  others  are  preferred  while  fresh. 

17.  The  importance  of  this  fishery  is  superior  to 
that  of  any  other ;  since  the  benefits  resulting  from 
it  are  more  generally  diffused.     The  ancients,  how- 
ever,  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  knowledge  of 
this  valuable  fish.    It  was  first  brought  into  notice  by 
the  Dutch,  who  are  said  to  have  commenced  the  her- 
ring fishery  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland,  in  the  year 
1164,  and  to  have  retained  almost  exclusive  possess, 
ion  of  it,  until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

18.  The  shad  is  a  species  of  herring,  which  inhab. 
its  the  sea  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  and  which  as- 
cends them  in  the  spring,  to  deposit  its  spawn.     It  is 
caught  in  all  the  rivers  terminating  on  our  Atlantic 
coasts,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the  rivers  of  the  North 
of  Europe.     This  fish  is  captured  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  often  at  the  same  time  with  the  common  her- 
ring.   It  is  highly  esteemed  in  a  fresh  state  ;  although 
it  is  not  so  good  when  salted,  as  the  herring  and  some 
other  kinds  of  fish. 

19.  Mackerel  Fishery. — The  common  mackerel  is 


THE     FISHERMAN.  159 

a  migratory  fish,  like  the  herring,  and  ranks  next  to 
that  tribe  of  fishes  in  regard  to  numbers,  and  perhaps 
in  general  utility.  Its  place  of  retirement  in  the  win- 
ter,  is  not  positively  known ;  but  it  is  supposed  by 
some,  to  be  far  north  of  the  arctic  circle ;  and  by 
others,  to  be  in  some  part  of  the  Atlantic  farther 
south.  Shoals  of  this  fish  appear  on  the  coasts  of 
both  Europe  and  America,  in  the  summer  season.  Of 
this  fish  there  are  twenty-two  species. 

20.  The  mode  of  catching  the  mackerel,  is  either 
with  a  net  or  with  hooks  and  lines.    The  latter  meth- 
od succeeds  best,  when  the  boat  or  vessel  is  driven 
forward  by  a  gentle  breeze ;  and,  in  this  case,  a  bit 
of  red  cloth,  or  a  painted  feather,  is  usually  employed 
as  a  bait.     Several  hooks  are  fastened   to  a  single 
line,  and  the  fish  bite  so  readily,  that  the  fishermen 
occasionally  take  one  on  each  hook  at  a  haul.     The 
mackerel  is  cured  in  the  usual  manner,  and  packed  in 
barrels,  to  be  sold  to  dealers. 

21.  This  fish  was  well  known  to  the  ancients,  as 
one  of  its  places  of  resort,  in  the  summer,  was  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.     It  was  highly  esteemed  by  the 
Romans,  for  the  reason,  that  it  was  the  best  fish  for 
making  their  sarum,  a  kind  of  pickle  or  sauce  much 
esteemed  by  this  luxurious  people. 

22.  Salmon  Fishery. — The  salmon  is  a  celebrated 
fish,  belonging  to  the  trout  genus.     It  inhabits  the 
seas  on  the   European  coasts,  from  Spitzbergen  to 
Western  France  ;  and,  on  the  western  shore  of  the 
Atlantic,  it  is  found  from  Greenland  to  the  Hudson 
River.     It  also  abounds  on  both  coasts  of  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean.     The  length  of  full-grown  salmon  is 
from  three  to  four  feet ;  and  their  weight,  from  ten  to 
fifteen  pounds. 

23.  As  soon  as  the  ice  has  left  the  rivers,  the  sal- 
men  begin  to  ascend  them,  for  the  purpose  of  deposit- 
ing their  spawn       Tt  ha«  W.n  ascertained,  that  these 


160  THE     FISHERMAN. 

fish  retain  a  remarkable  attachment  to  the  river  which 
gave  them  birth ;  and,  having  once  deposited  their 
spawn,  they  ever  afterwards  choose  the  same  spot  for 
their  annual  deposits.  This  latter  fact  has  been  es- 
tablished by  a  curious  Frenchman,  who,  fastening  a 
ring  to  the  posterior  fin  of  several  salmon,  and  then 
setting  them  at  liberty,  found  that  some  of  them  made 
their  appearance  at  the  same  place  three  successive 
seasons,  bearing  with  them  this  distinguishing  mark. 

24.  In  ascending  the  rivers,  these  fish  usually  pro- 
ceed  together  in  great  numbers,  mostly  swimming  in 
the  middle  of  the  stream ;  and,  being  very  timid,  a 
sudden  noise,  or  even  a  floating  piece  of  timber,  will 
sometimes  turn  them   from   their  course,  and  send 
them  back  to  the  sea ;  but  having  advanced  a  while, 
they  assume  a  determined  resolution,  overcoming  rap- 
ids and  leaping  over  falls  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  per 
pendicular  height. 

25.  Salmon   are  caught  chiefly  with   seines,  and 
sometimes  seven  or  eight  hundred  are  captured  at  a 
single  haul ;  but  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  is  the  most, 
usual  number,  even  in  a  favorable  season.    They  are 
also  taken  in  weirs,  which  are   inclosures  so  con- 
structed that  they  admit  the  ingress,  but  not  the  re- 
gress of  the  fish. 

26.  The  salmon  fisheries  are  numerous  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  as  well  as  in  most  of  the  north- 
ern countries  of  Europe.     In  the  United  States,  the 
most  valuable  fisheries  of  this  kind  are  on  the  rivers 
in  Maine,  whence  the  towns  and  cities  farther  south 
are  principally  supplied  with  these  fish,  in  a  fresh 
condition.     They  are  preserved  in  ice,  while  on  theii 
way  to  market.     In  the  cured  state,  salmon  is  highl)i 
esteemed  ;  although  it  is  not  easily  digested. 

27.  Cod  Fishery. — There  are  several  species  of 
cod-fish,  or  gadus  ;  but  the  most  important  and  inter- 
esting of  the  class,  is  the  common  cod.     These  fish 


THE     FISHERMAN.  161 

are  found  in  great  abundance  on  the  south  and  west 
coasts  of  Iceland,  on  the  coasts  of  Norway,  off  the 
Orkney  and  Western  Isles,  and  in  the  Baltic  Sea 
Farther  south,  they  gradually  diminish  in  numbers, 
and  entirely  disappear,  some  distance  from  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar. 

28.  But  the  great  rendezvous  of  cod-fish  is  on  the 
coasts  of  Labrador,  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  Cape 
Breton,  and  Nova  Scotia.     They  are  invited  to  these 
situations  by  the  abundance  of  small  fish,  worms,  and 
other  marine  animals  of  the  crustaceous  and  testa- 
ceous kinds,  on  which  they  feed.     The  fishermen  re- 
sort, in  the   greatest   numbers,  to  the  banks,  which 
stretch   along  the   eastern   coasts  of  Newfoundland 
about  four  hundred  and  fifty  miles.     The  water  on 
these  banks  varies  from  twenty  to  fifty  fathoms  in 
depth. 

29.  By  negociations  with  Great  Britain,  the  French, 
Dutch,  Spanish,  and  Americans,  have  acquired  the 
right  to  catch  and  cure  fish,  both  on  the  Grand  Banks, 
and  several  other  places  on  the  coasts  of  the  English 
possessions  in  North  America.     The  number  of  ves- 
sels employed  on  the  several  fishing  stations,  during 
each  successive  season,  amounts  to  six  or  seven  thou- 
sand, each  measuring  from  forty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  tons,  and  carrying  eight  or  ten  men. 

30.  The  fishing  on  the  Grand  Banks  commences 
in  April,  and  continues  until  about  the  first  of  August. 
Here,  the  fish  are  caught,  exclusively  with   hooks, 
which  are  usually  baited  with  a  small  fish  called  the 
capelin,  as  well  as  with  herring,  clams,  and  the  gills 
of  the  cod  itself.     But  this  fish  is  not  very  particular 
in  its  choice  of  bait,  it  biting  greedily  at  almost  any 
kind  which  may  be  presented.     An  expert  fisherman 
will  frequently  catch  from  one  hundred  to  three  hun- 
dred cod  in  a  single  day. 

31.  As  soon  as  the  fish  have  been  caught,  their 


162  THE     FISHERMAN. 

heads  are  cut  off,  and  their  entrails  taken  out.  They 
are  then  salted  away  in  bulk  in  the  hold  ;  and,  after 
having  lain  three  or  four  days  to  drain,  they  are  taken 
to  another  part  of  the  vessel,  and  again  salted  in  the 
same  manner.  The  fishermen  from  New-England, 
however,  give  them  but  one  salting  while  on  the  fish- 
ing  station ;  but,  as  soon  as  a  cargo  has  been  obtain- 
ed,  it  is  carried  home,  where  conveniences  have  been 
prepared  for  curing  the  fish  to  greater  advantage. 
By  pursuing  this  plan,  two  or  three  trips  are  made 
during  the  season.  Some  of  the  fish  are  injured  be- 
fore  they  are  taken  from  the  vessel ;  and  these  form 
an  inferior  quality,  called  Jamaica  fish,  because  such 
are  generally  sold  in  that  island,  for  the  use  of  the 
negroes. 

32.  The  fish  which  are  caught  on  the  coasts  of 
Labrador,  at  the  entrance  of  Hudson's  Bay,  in  the 
Straits  of  Belleisle,  and  on  fishing  stations  of  similar 
advantages,  are  cured  on  the  shore.     They  are  first 
slightly  salted,  and  then  dried  in  the  sun,  either  on 
the  rocks,  or  on  scaffolds  erected  for  the  purpose. 
In  these  coast  fisheries,  the  operations  commence  in 
June,  and  continue  until  some  time  in  August.     The 
cod  are  caught  in  large  seines,  as  well  as  with  hook 
and  line. 

33.  Seal  Fishery. — There  are  several  species  of 
the  seal  ;  but  the  kind  which  is  most  numerous,  and 
most  important  in  a  commercial  view,  is  the  common 
seal.     It  is  found  on  the  sea-coasts  throughout  the 
world,  but  in  the  greatest  numbers  in  very  cold  cli- 
mates, where  it  furnishes  the  rude  inhabitants  with 
nearly  all  their  necessaries  and  luxuries. 

34.  The  animal  is  valuable  to  the  civilized  world, 
on  account  of  its  skin  and  oil.     Th3  oil  is  pure,  and 
is  adapted  to  all  the  purposes  to  which  that  from  the 
whale  is  applied.     In  the  spring  of  the  year,  the  seals 
are  very  fat;  and,  at  that  time,  even  small  ones  will 


THE     FISHERMAN.  163 

yield  four  or  five  gallons  of  oil.  The  leather  manu- 
factured from  the  skins,  is  employed  in  trunk-making, 
in  saddlery,  and  in  making  boots  and  shoes. 

35.  Since  the  whale  fishery  has  declined  in  pro- 
ductiveness  in  the  northern  seas,  sealing  has  arisen 
in  importance  ;  and  accordingly,  vessels  are  now  fre- 
quently fitted  out  for  this  purpose,  in  both  Europe  and 
America  ;  whereas,  a  few  years  since,  it  was  regard- 
ed only  as  a  part  of  the  objects  of  a  whaling  voyage. 

86.  Our  countrymen  of  New-England  have  partic- 
ularly distinguished  themselves  in  this  branch  of  bu- 
siness  ;  and  the  part  of  the  globe  which  they  have 
found  to  be  the  most  favorable  to  their  objects,  has 
been  the  islands  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  A  sealing 
voyage  to  that  quarter  often  occupies  three  years, 
during  which  time  the  hunters  are  exposed  to  great 
hardships,  being  often  left  in  small  detachments  on 
desolate  islands,  for  the  purpose  of  pursuing  the  ani- 
mals to  greater  advantage. 

37.  The  best  time  for  sealing  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
is  in  March  and  April,  when  the  seals  are  often  met 
with  in  droves  of  several  thousands  on  the  ice,  which 
is  either  fixed,  or  floating  in  large  pieces.     When  ihe 
sealers  meet  with  one  of  these  droves,  they  attack  the 
animals  with  clubs,  and  stun  them  by  a  single  blow 
on  the  nose.     After  all  that  can  be  reached,  have  been 
disabled  in  this  way,  the  skin  and  blubber  are  taken 
off  together. 

38.  This  operation  is  called  flenching,  and  is  some- 
times a  horrible  business  ;  since  some  of  the  seals, 
being  merely  stunned,  occasionally  recover,  and,  in 
their  denuded  state,  often  make  battle,  and  even  leap 
into  the  water,  and  swim  off.     The  skins,  with  the 
blubber  attached  to   them,  are  packed  away  in  the 
hold  ;  and,  in  case  the  vessel  is  to  return  home  soon, 
they  are  suffered  to  remain  there,  until  she  arrives  in 
port ;  but,  when  this  is  not  expected,  the  skins,  as 


164  THE     FISHERMAN. 

soon  as  convenient,  are  separated  from  the  blubber, 
and  the  latter  is  put  into  casks.  There  are  other 
methods  of  capturing  the  seal  ;  but  it  is,  perhaps,  not 
necessary  to  enter  into  further  details. 

39.  Whale  Fishery. — There  are  five  species  of  the 
whale,  of  which  the  Ba/cena  Physalis,  or  razor-back, 
is  the  largest.     When  full  grown,  it  is  supposed  to  be 
about  one  hundred  feet  in  length,  and  thirty  or  thirty- 
five  feet  in  circumference.     It  is  so  powerful  an  ani- 
mal, that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  capture  it ;  and, 
when  captured,  it  yields  but  little  oil  and  whalebone. 
The  species,  to  which  whalers  direct  their  attention 
is  denominated  the  Mystecetus,  or  the  right  whale. 

40.  The  mystecetus  is  found,  in  the  greatest  num. 
bers,  in  the  Greenland  seas,  about  the  island  of  Spitz- 
bergen,  in  Davis'  Straits,  in  Hudson's  and  Baffin's 
Bays,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  is  also  found  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  and  along  the 
coasts  of  Africa  and  South  America,  and  occasionally 
on  the  coasts  of  the  United  States. 

41.  Each  vessel  engaged  in  this  fishery,  is  gener- 
ally fitted  out  by  several  individuals,  who  receive,  of 
the  return  cargo  of  oil  and  whalebone,  a  portion  cor- 
responding to  the  amount  which  they  have  contribu- 
ted to  the  common  stock,  after  the  men  have  received 
their  proportion  of  it.     Should  the  voyage  prove  al- 
together  unsuccessful,   which   seldom    happens,   the 
owners  lose  the  amount  of  the  outfit,  and  the  captain, 
and  hands,  their  time. 

42.  The  whalers  commence  operations  in  the  north- 
ern latitudes,  in  the  month  of  May ;  but  the  whales 
are  most  plentiful  in  June,  when  they  are  met  with 
between  the  latitudes  75°  and  80°,  in  almost  every 
variety  of  situation,  sometimes  in  the  open  seas,  at 
others  in  the  loose  ice,  or  at  the  edges  of  the  fields 
and  floes,  which  are  near  the  main,  impervious  body 
of  ice. 


THE     FISHERMAN  165 

43.  On  the  fishing  station,  the  boats  are  kept  al- 
ways ready  for  instant  service,  beiog  suspended  from 
davits,  or  cranes,  by  the  sides  of  the  ship,  and  being 
furnished  with  a  lance  and  a  harpoon,  to  the  latter  of 
which  is  attached  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  fath- 
oms of  strong  but  flexible  rope.     When  the  weather 
and  situation  are  favorable,  the  crow's  nest,  which  is 
a  station  at  the  mast-head,  is  occupied  by  some  per- 
son  with  a  telescope. 

44.  The  moment  a  whale  is  discovered,  notice  is 
given  to  the  watch  below,  who  instantly  man  one  or 
two   boats,   and    row    with    swiftness   to    the    place. 
Sometimes,  a  boat  is  kept  manned  and  afloat  near  the 
ship,  that  no  time  may  be  lost  in  making  ready;  or, 
two  or  three  are  sent  out  on  the  look-out,  having  every 
thing  ready  for  an  attack. 

45.  The  whale  being  very  timid  and  cautious,  the 
men  endeavor  to  approach  him  unperceived,  and  strike 
him  with  the  harpoon,  before  he  is  aware  of  their 
presence.     Sometimes,  however,  he  perceives  their 
approach,  and  dives  into  the  water,  to  avoid  them  ; 
but,  being  compelled  to  come  again  to  the  surface  to 
breathe,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  to  blow,  they  make  another 
effort   to    harpoon   him.     In   this   way,  the  whalers 
often   pursue  him  for  a  considerable  time,  and  fre- 
quently without  final  success.     The  animal,  when  un- 
molested, remains  about  two  minutes  on  the  surface, 
during  which  time  he  blows  eight- or  nine  times,  and 
then  descends  for  five  or  ten  minutes,  and  often,  while  • 
feeding,  for' fifteen  or  twenty. 

46.  When  the  whale  has  been  struck,  he  generally 
dives  towards  the  bottom  of  the  sea  either  perpen- 
dicularly or  obliquely,  where  he  remains  about  thirty 
minutes,  and  sometimes  nearly  an  hour.     The  har- 
poon has,  near  its  point,  two.  barbs,  or  withers,  which 
cause  it  to  remain  fast  in  the  integuments  under  the 
skin  ;  and  the  rope  attached  to  it,  is  coiled  in  the  bow 


166  THE     FISHERMAN. 

of  the  boat  in  such  a  way,  that  it  runs  out  without  in- 
terruption. When  more  line  is  wanted,  it  is  made 
known  to  the  other  boats  by  the  elevation  of  an  oar. 
Should  the  rope  prove  too  short  for  the  great  descent 
of  the  whale,  it  becomes  necessary  to  sever  it  from 
the  boat,  lest  the  latter  be  drawn  under  water ;  for 
this  emergency,  the  harpooner  stands  ready  with  a 
knife. 

47.  When  the  whale  reappears,  the  assisting  boats 
make  for  the  place  with  their  greatest  speed ;  and,  if 
possible,  each  harpooner  plunges  his  weapon  into  the 
back  of  the  creature.     On  convenient  occasions,  he 
is  also  plied  with  lances,  which  are  thrust  into  his 
vitals.     At  length,  overcome  with  wounds,  and  ex- 
hausted by  the  loss  of  blood,  his  approaching  dissolu- 
tion is  indicated  by  a  discharge  of  blood  from   his 
blow-holes,  and  sometimes  by  a  convulsive  struggle, 
in  which  his  tail,  raised,  whirled,  and  jerked  in  the 
air,  resounds  to  the  distance  of  several  miles.     The 
whale  having  been  thus  conquered,  and  deprived  of 
life,  the  captors  express  their  joy  with  loud  huzzas, 
and  communicate  the  information  to  the  ship  by  stri- 
king their  flag. 

48.  A  position  near  a  large  field  of  solid  ice  is 
very  advantageous ;  because  a  whale  diving  under  it 
is  obliged  to  return  again  to  blow  ;  and  this  circum- 
stance gives  opportunity  to  make  upon  him  several 
attacks.     Close  fields  of  drift  ice  present  great  diffi- 
culties ;  since  the  boats  cannot  always  pass  through 
them  with  sufficient  celerity.     In  that  case,  the  men 
sometimes  travel  over  the  ice,  leaping  from  one  piece 
to  another,  and  carrying  with  them  lances  and  har- 
poons, with  which  they  pierce  the  animal  as  often  as 
possible.     If  they  succeed  in  thus  killing  him,  they 
drag  him  back  under  the  ice  with  the  fast  line. 

49.  The  whale,  having  I»een  towed  to  the  ship,  and 
secured  alongside,  is  raised  a  little  by  means  of  pow- 


THE    FISHERMAN.  167 

erful  blocks,  or  tackle.  The  harpooners,  with  spurs 
fastened  to  the  bottom  of  their  feet  to  prevent  them 
from  slipping,  descend  upon  the  huge  body,  and,  with 
spades  an<*  knives  adapted  to  this  particular  purpose, 
cut  the  biuober  into  oblong  pieces,  which  are  peeled 
off,  and  hoisted  upon  deck  with  the  speck-tackle. 
These  long  strips  are  then  cut  into  chunks,  which  are 
immediately  packed  away  in  the  hold.  After  the  an- 
imal  has  been  thus  successively  flenched,  and  the 
whale-bone  taken  out,  the  carcase  is  dismissed  to  the 
sharks,  bears,  and  birds  of  prey. 

50.  The  blubber  is  somewhat  similar,  in  consist, 
ence,  to  the  fat  which  surrounds  the  body  of  the  hog, 
although   not  quite  so  solid.     In  young  whales,  its 
color  is  yellowish  white  ;  and,  in  old  ones,  yellow  or 
red.    Its  thickness  varies  in  different  parts  and  in  dif- 
ferent individuals,  from  eight  to  twenty  inches.     The 
weight  of  a  whale  sixty  feet  in  length,  is  about  seven- 
ty tons,  of  which  the  blubber  weighs  about  thirty  tons. 

51.  The   whale-bone    is    situated    in   the    mouth. 
About  three  hundred  laminae,  or  blades,  grow  parallel 
to  each  other  on  either  side  of  the  upper  jaw,  being 
about  half  an  inch  thick,  and  ten  or  twelve  inches 
wide,  where  they  are  united  by  the  gum.     As  the 
whale  grows  old,  they  increase   in   length,  and   ap- 
proach from  each  side  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth.    The 
whale,  while  feeding,  swims  with  his  mouth  wide  open, 
which  admits  a  great  quantity  of  water  containing 
insects  or  small   fish,   on   which  he  subsists.     The 
whale-bone  acts  as  a  filter,  or  strainer,  in  retaining 
the  little  animals,  while  the  water  passes  off  at  the 
corners  of  the  mouth. 

52.  Before  the  whalers  leave  the  fishing  station, 
they  cut  the  blubber  into  small  pieces,  and  put  it  into 
close  casks.    Sometimes,  however,  when  the  ship  has 
been  very  successful,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  casks. 
In  that  case,  it  is  slightly  salted,  and  packed  away  iu 


168  THE     FISHERMAN. 

the  hold.  But,  as  the  ship  must  necessarily  pass 
through  a  warmer  climate,  on  her  voyage  homeward, 
the  blubber,  while  packed  in  this  manner,  is  liable  to 
melt  and  be  wasted,  unless  the  weather  should  prove 
uncommonly  cool. 

53.  When  the  vessel  has  arrived  in  port,  the  blub- 
ber  is  found  to  be  melted.     To  separate  the  oil  from 
the  fritters,  orfenks,  as  the  integuments  and  other  im. 
purities  are  called,  the  contents  of  the  casks  are  pour- 
ed into  copper  boilers,  and  heated.    The  heat  causes  a 
part  of  the  latter  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  the  for- 
mer  is  drawn  off  into  coolers,  where  other  extraneous 
matters  settle.     The  pure  or  fine  oil  is  then  drawn 
oir  for  sale.     An  inferior  quality  of  oil,  called  brown 
oil,  is  obtained  from  the  dregs  of  the  blubber. 

54.  The  spermaceti  cachalot,  or  Physeter  Macro, 
cephalus,  is  an  animal  belonging  to  the  norwal  genus  ; 
although  it  is  generally  denominated  the  spermaceti 
whale.     It  is  found  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  where  it  is  sought  by  American  and 
other  whalers,  for  the  sake  of  the  oil  and  spermaceti. 
This  animal  is  gregarious,  and  is  often  met  with  in 
herds  containing  more  than  two  hundred  individuals. 

55.  Whenever  a  number  of  the  cachalot  are  seen, 
several   boats,  manned   each  with   six  men  provided 
with  harpoons  and  lances,  proceed  in  pursuit;  and, 
if  possible,  each  boat  strikes  or  fastens  to  a  distinct 
animal,  which,  in   most  cases,  is  overcome  without 
much  difficulty.     Being  towed  to  the  ship,  it  is  de- 
prived of  its  blubber,  and  the  matter  contained  in  the 
head,  which  consists  of  spermaceti  combined  with  a 
small  proportion  of  oil.     The  oil  is  leduced  from  the 
blubber,  soon  after  it  has  been  taken  on  board,  in  "  try 
works,"  with  which  every  ship  engaged  in  this  fishery 
is  provided. 

56.  About  three  tons  of  oil  are  commonly  obtained 
from  a  large  cachalot  of  ihis  species,  and  from  ona 


THE     FISHERMAN.  169 

to  two  tons  from  a  small  one,  besides  the  head-mat- 
ter.  The  manner  in  which  these  two  products  are 
treated,  when  brought  into  port,  has  been  described 
in  the  article  on  candle-making. 

57.  The  Biscayans  were  the  first  people  who  pros- 
ecuted  the  whale  fishery,  as  a  commercial  pursuit. 
In  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
they  carried  on  this  business  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent ;  but  the  whales  taken  by  them  were  not  so  large 
as  those  which  have  since  been  captured  in  the  polar 
seas.     At  length,  the  whales  ceased  to  visit  the  Bay 
of  Biscay,  and  the  fishery  in  that  quarter  was  of 
course  terminated. 

58.  The  voyages  of  the  English  and  Dutch  to  the 
Northern  Ocean,  in  search  of  a  passage  to  India,  led 
to  the  discovery  of  the  principal  haunts  of  the  whale, 
and  induced  individuals  in  those  nations  to  fit  out  ves- 
sels  to  pursue  these  animals  in  the  northern  latitudes, 
the  harpooners  and  part  of  the  crews  being  Biscay- 
ans.    The  whales  were  found  in  the  greatest  abun- 
dance about  the  island  of  Spitzbergen,  and  were,  at 
first,  so  easily  captured,  that  extra  vessels  were  sent 
out  in  ballast,  to  assist  in  bringing  home  the  oil  and 
whalebone  ;  but  the  whales,  retiring  to  the  centre  of 
the  ocean,  and  to  the  other  side  to  the  Greenland  seas, 
soon  became  scarce  about  that  island. 

59.  The  whale  fishery  was  revived,  as  above  sta- 
ted, about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  ; 
and,  with  the  Dutch,  it  was  in  the  most  flourishing 
condition  in  1680,  when  it  employed  about  two  hun- 
dred  and  sixty  ships,  and  fourteen  thousand  men. 
The  wars  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, extending  their  baleful  influence  to  almost  every 
part  of  the  ocean,  annihilated  this  branch  of  business 
among  the  Dutch  ;  and,  in  1828,  only  a  single  whale- 
ship  sailed  from  Holland. 

60.  The  English  whale  fishery  was,  at  first,  car- 


170  THE     FISHERMAN. 

ried  on  by  companies  enjoying  exclusive  privileges ; 
but  the  pursuit  was  attended  with  little  success.  In 
1733-  Parliamefit  decreed  a  bounty  of  twenty  shillings 
per  ton,  on  every  whaler  measuring  more  than  two 
hundred  tons  ;  and,  although  this  bounty  was  increas- 
ed in  1749  to  forty  shillings,  yet  the  English  whale 
fishery  has  never  been  very  flourishing. 

61.  The  whale  fishery  has  been  carried  on  with 
greater  success  from  the  United  Sfates  than  from  any 
other  country.      It  was  begun  by  the  colonists,  on 
their  own  shores,  at  a  very  early  period  ;  but  the 
whales  having  abandoned  the  coasts  of  North  Amer- 
ica, these  hardy  navigators  pursued  them  into  the 
northern  and  southern  oceans. 

62.  The  number  of  American  vessels  now  employ, 
ed  in  pursuit  of  the  spermaceti  cachalot  and  the  mys- 
tecetus,  amounts  to  about  four  hundred,  and  the  num- 
ber of  men  to  about  ten  thousand.     The  inhabitants 
of  the  island  of  Nantucket,  and  of  the  town  of  New- 
Bedford,  are  more  extensively  engaged  in  these  fish- 
eries than  the  people  of  any  other  part  of  the  United 
States. 


THE    SHIPWRIGHT. 

1.  THE  earliest  notice  we  have  of  the  construction 
of  a  building  to  float  on  water,  is  that  which  relates 
to  Noah's  Ark.     This  was  the  largest  vessel  that  has 
ever  been  built,  and  the  circumstance" proves  that  the 
arts,  at  that  early  period,  had  been  brought  to  con- 
siderable  perfection  ;   yet,  as  several  centuries  had 
elapsed,  after  the  flood,  before  the  descendants  of 
Noah  had  much  occasion  for  floating  vessels,  the  art 
of  constructing  them  seems  to  have  been  measurably 
lost. 

2.  Early  records,  which  perhaps  are  worthy  of 
credit,  state  that  the  Egyptians   first  traversed   the 
river  Nile  upon  rafts,  then  in  the  canoe  ;  and  that,  to 
these  succeeded  the  boat,  built  with  joist,  fastened  to. 
Aether  with  wooden  pins,  and  rendered  water-tight  liy 


172  THE      SHIPWRIGHT. 

interposing  the  leaves  of  the  papyrus.  To  this  boat 
was,  at  length,  added  a  mast  of  acanthus,  and  a  sail 
of  papyrus  ;  but,  being  prejudiced  against  the  sea  be- 
cause it  swallowed  up  their  sacred  river,  which  they 
worshipped  as  a  god,  they  never  attempted  to  con- 
truct  vessels  adapted  to  marine  navigation. 

3.  The  Phoenicians,  a  nation  nearly  as  ancient  as 
the  Egyptian,  being  situated  directly  on  the  sea,  with- 
out the  advantages  of  a  noble  river,  were  compelled 
to  provide  means  for  sailing  on  a  wider  expanse  of 
water.      It  is  said,  however,  that  they  first  traversed 
the  Mediterranean,  and  even  visited  distant  islands, 
with  no  better  means  of  conveyance  than  a  raft  of 
timber.     This  is  rendered  somewhat  probable,  from 
the  fact,  that  the  Peruvians,  even  at  the  present  time, 
venture  upon  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  their  balza,  a  raft 
made  from  a  spongy  tree  of  that  name. 

4.  The  vessels  first  constructed  by  the  Phoenicians, 
were  used  for  commercial  purposes.    They  were  flat- 
bottomed,  broad,  and  of  a  small  draught ;  and  those 
of  the   Carthaginians   and   Greeks   were   similar  in 
shape.     The  ships  of  war,  in  early  times,  were  gen- 
erally mere  row-boats,  in  which  the  combatants  rush, 
ed  upon  each  other,  and  decided  the  combat  by  valor 
and  physical  strength. 

5.  By  successive  improvements,  the  ships  of  an- 
tiquity were,  at  length,  brought  to  combine  good  pro- 
portion with  considerable  beauty.     The  prows  were 
sometimes  ornamented  with  the  sculptured  figures  of 
heathen  deities,  and  otherwise  adorned  with  paint  and 
gilding,  while  the  sterns,  which  were  usually  in  the 
form  of  a  shield,  were  elaborately  wrought  in  carved 
work.     The  approved  length  of  a  ship  of  war,  was 
six  or  eight  times  its  breadth ;  and  that  for  mercan- 
tile purposes,  four  times  the  breadth  ;  hence,  the  dis 
tinction  of  long  ships,  and  round  ships. 

6.  Both  the  long  and  round  ships  had  a  single  mast, 
which  could  be  taken  down  or  elevated  at  pleasure 


THE     SHIPWRIGHT.  173 

These  vessels  were,  however,  propelled  with  oars  on 
occasions  that  required  it ;  and  the  former,  in  their 
improved  state,  were  properly  galleys  with  one,  two, 
or  three  banks  of  oars,  which  extended  from  one  end 
of  the  vessel  to  the  other.  The  rowers  were  all 
placed  under  the  deck ;  and,  in  time  of  battle,  the 
combatants  contended  above,  being  in  part  defended 
from  the  missiles  of  opposing  foes  by  shields  carried 
on  the  arm,  and  by.  screens  and  towers  placed  on  the 
deck.  The  bow  of  each  vessel  was  armed  with  a 
brazen  or  iron  beak,  with  which  the  contending  par- 
ties often  stove  in  the  sides  of  each  other's  vessels. 

7.  The  general  size  of  vessels  in  the  best  days  of 
antiquity,  was  not  greater  than   that  of  our  sloops 
and  schooners ;   but  there  are  instances  on  record, 
which  prove  that  they  occasionally  equalled  in  capa- 
city the  largest  of  modern  times.     In  the  early  ages, 
they  were  very  small,  and,  for  several  centuries,  were 
drawn  upon  the  shore  at  the  termination   of  every 
voyage.     Stranding,  however,  became  impracticable, 
after  the  increase  in  size,  and  the  addition  of  the  keel. 
The  anchor  and  cable  were,  therefore,  invented,  to 
confine  the  ship  at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  shore. 
At  first,  the  anchor  was  nothing  more  than  a  large 
stone.    Afterwards,  it  was  wood  and  stone  combined  ,• 
ind,  finally,  iron  was  the  sole  material. 

8.  The  invasion  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  north- 
ern barbarians,  caused  the  operations  of  war  to  be 
alrnoot  exclusively  conducted  on  the  land.     This,  to- 
gether with  the  destruction  of  commerce  during  the 
general  desolation  of  those  ruthless  incursions,  and 
the  barbarism  of  the  conquerors,  occasioned  a  retro- 
gression, and,  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  nearly  the 
total  destruction  of  the  art  of  building  ships. 

9.  The  active  trade  which  arose  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, during  the  middle  ages,  and  the  naval  enter- 
prises  connected  with  the  Crusades,  occasioned  a  re- 


174  THE    SHIPWRIGHT. 

vival  of  the  art  of  constructing  ships ;  yet,  it  did  not 
advance  beyond  the  condition  in  which  the  Cartha- 
ginians had  left  it,  until  about  the  middle  of  the  four- 
teenth century.  At  this  era,  the  inconsiderable  gal- 
leys of  former  times  began  to  be  superseded  by  Tar- 
ger  vessels,  in  which,  however,  oars  were  not  entirely 
dispensed  with. 

10.  The  great  change  in  the  general  construction 
uf  vessels,  arose  from  the  discovery  of  the  polarity 
of  the  magnet,  and  the  application  of  astronomy  to 
nautical  pursuits ;  for,  by  these  means,  the  mariner 
was  released  from  his  dependance  on  the  sight  of  the 
land,  in   guiding   his  vessel  on  its  course.     Larger 
ships   were  therefore  constructed,  capable  of  with- 
standing more  violent  storms  and  loftier  waves. 

11.  To  the  Italians,  Catalans,  and  Portuguese,  was 
ship-building  most  considerably  indebted,  in  the  early 
days  of  its  revival.     The  Spaniards  followed  up  their 
discovery  of  the  New  World  with  a  rapid  improve- 
ment in  both  the  form  and  size  of  their  ships ;  some 
of  which  even  rated  at  two  thousand  tons  burden.    In 
more  modern  times,  it  is  said,  that  the  Spaniards  and 
French  are  entitled  to  the  credit  of  nearly  all  the  im- 
provements which  have  been  made  in  the  theory  of 
the  art,  the  English  having  never  contributed  essen- 
tially to  advance  it,  although  the  greatest  naval  power 
of  this  or  any  other  time. 

12.  In  the  United  States,  very  great  improvements 
have  been  made  in  the  construction  of  vessels,  since 
the   commencement   of  the    present   century.     Our 
builders,  however,  are  less  guided  by  scientific  rules 
than  by  experience  and  a  practised  eye ;  yet,  it  is 
generally  conceded,  that  our  ships  of  war  and  first- 
rate  merchantmen,  are  superior  in  swiftness  and  beau- 
ty to  those  of  any  other  country. 

13.  In  Europe,  the  first  thing  done  towards  build, 
ing  a  vessel,  is  to  exhibit  it  in  three  distinct  views  by 
as  many  separate  drawings  ;  but,  in  tho  United  States. 


THE     SHIPWRIGHT.  175 

the  builder  commences  by  framing  a  complete  wood 
en  model  of  the  proposed  construction — the  thing  it- 
self  in  miniature.  From  this  practice  of  our  naval 
architects,  have  arisen  the  superior  beauty  and  excel- 
lence of  our  vessels. 

14.  The  timber  generally  used  in  the  construction 
of  American  vessels,  is  live-oak,  pine,  chestnut,  lo- 
cust,  and  cedar.     The  trees  of  mature  growth  are 
chosen,  and  girdled  in  the   beginning  of  winter,  at 
which  time  they  contain  but  little  sap.     When  suffi- 
ciently dry  and  hardened,  the  trees  are  felled ;  and, 
after  the  timber  has  been  roughly  hewn,  it  is  carefully 
stored  in  some  dry,  airy  place,  not  much  exposed  to 
wind  or  sun. 

15.  In  collecting  ship-timber,  the  greatest  difficulty 
is  found  in  procuring  the  crooked  sticks,  which  form 
the  sides  or  ribs  of  the  skeleton  of  a  vessel.    In  coun- 
tries where  ship-timber  has  become  an  object  of  care- 
ful cultivation,  this  difficulty  is  anticipated  by  bending 
the  young  trees  to  the  desired  form,  and  confining 
them  there,  until  they  have  permanently  received  the 
proper  inclination.    The  timber  is  brought  to  market 
in  its  rough  state,  and  sold  by  the  foot. 

16.  The  timber  having  been  selected,  the  workmen 
proceed  to  fashion  the  various  parts  of  the  proposed 
vessel  with  appropriate  tools,  being  guided  in  their 
operations  by  patterns,  which  have  been  made  after 
the  exact  form  of  the  various  parts  of  the  model. 
Much  care  is  taken  to  avoid  cutting  the  wood  contrary 
to  the  grain,  that  its  strength  may  not  be  impaired. 

17.  After  all  the  parts  of  the  frame  have  been  made 
ready,  they  are  put  together.    The  several  blocks  of 
timber  on  which  the  vessel  is  raised,  are  called  the 
slocks ;  and  to  these  pieces,  the  foundation,  called  the 
keel,  is  temporarily  fastened  in  an  inclined  position. 
The  keel  is  inserted  into  the  stern-post  at  one  end, 
and  into  the  stem  at  the  other.     The  floor-timbers  are 
next  fixed  in  thu  keel,  every  other  one  being  there 


176  THE    SHIPWRIGHT. 

firmly  bolted  and  riveted.  Each  of  these  timbers  is 
a  branch  and  part  of  the  body  of  a  tree ;  and,  when 
composing  a  part  of  a  vessel,  they  bear  the  same  re- 
lation to  it  as  the  ribs  to  the  human  body.  With 
equal  propriety,  the  keel  has  been  compared  to  the 
vertebral  column,  or  back-bone. 

18.  The  next  step  is  to  apply  and  fasten  the  planks, 
which  serve  not  only  to  exclude  the  water,  but  to  bind 
all  the  parts  firmly  and  harmoniously  together.     Sim- 
ple as  this  part  of  the  operation  may  seern  to  be,  it  is 
the  most  difficult  to  be  effected,  and  requires  a  pre- 
concerted plan  as  much  as  any  other  part  of  the  fab- 
ric.     When  it  is  necessary  to  bend  a  plank  at  the 
bow  or  stern,  it  is  heated  by  steam,  and  then  forced 
into  place  with  screws  and  levers.     The  planks  are 
fastened  with  iron  or  copper  bolts. 

19.  The  planking  having  been  finished,  and  sev- 
eral particulars  attended  to,  which  cannot  be  well  un- 
derstood from  description,  the  vessel  is  ready  for  the 
work  of  the  caulker,  who  carefully  stops  all  the  seams 
with  oakum,  and  smears  them  with  pitch.     After  the 
superfluous  pitch  has  been  cleared   away  with  the 
scraper,  water  is  pumped  into  the  hold,  to  ascertain 
if  there  is  any  leak. 

20.  The  bottom  of  the  vessel  is  next  sheathed  ei. 
ther  with  sheets  of  copper  or  pine  boards,  to  protec* 
it  from  the  worms.     The  latter  materials  are  em. 
ployed  when  the  planks  have  been  fastened  with  iron  . 
since  the  copper  would  cause  the  bolt-heads  to  cor 
rode,  if  placed  against  them.     In  either  case,  sheets 
of  paper,  soaked  in  hot  pitch,  are  interposed  between 
the  planks  and  the  sheathing. 

21.  The  vessel  is  now  ready  to  be  removed  from 
the  stocks   to  the  water.      This  removal  is  called 
launching,  which,  in  many  cases,  requires  much  skill 
in  the  preparation  and  successive  management.     If 
there  is  no  permanent  inclined  plane  in  the  slip,  on 
which  the  vessel  may  glide  into  the  water,  a  tempo- 


THE      SHIPWRIGHT.  177 

rary  one  is  prepared,  consisting  of  two  platforms  of 
solid  timber,  erected  one  on  each  side  of  the  keel,  at 
a  distance  of  a  few  feet  from  it,  and  extending  from 
the  stem  into  the  water.  Upon  this  double  platform 
which  is  called  the  ways,  is  erected  another  set  of 
timbers,  and  the  space  between  these  and  the  vessel 
is  filled  all  along  with  wedges.  The  whole  of  this 
superstructure  is  called  the  cradle,  and  the  extremi- 
ties of  it  are  fastened  to  the  keel,  at  the  bow  and  stern, 
with  chains  and  ropes. 

22.  Every  thing  having  been  thus  prepared,  the 
wedges  are  simultaneously  driven  on  both  sides.     By 
this  means,  the  vessel  is  raised  from  the  stocks,  and 
made  to  rest  entirely  on  the  cradle.     After  the  shores 
have  been  all  removed,  the  cradle,  with  its  weighty 
burden,  begins  to  move  ;  and,  in  a  moment,  the  ves- 
sel is  launched  upon  its  destined  element. 

23.  Amana  the  ancients,  a  launch  was  ever  an  oc 
casion  ot  great  festivity.     The  mariners  were  crown, 
ed  with  wreaths,   and  the  ship  was   bedecked  with 
streamers  and  garlands.     Safely  afloat,  she  was  pu- 
rified with  a  lighted  torch,  an  egg,  and  brimstone,  and 
solemnly  consecrated  to  the  god  whose  image  she 
bore.     In  our  less  poetic  times,  there  is  no  lack  of 
feasting  and  merriment ;  although  the  ceremony  of 
consecration  is  different,  the  oldest  sailor  on  board 
merely  breaking  a  bottle  of  wine  or  rum  over  the  fig- 
ure-head — still,  perchance,  the  image  of  father  Nep- 
tune or  Apollo. 

24.  The  vessel,  now  brought  to  the  wharf,  is  to  be 
equipped.     The  mode  of  doing  this,  is  varied  accord- 
ing as  it  may  be  a  ship,  brig,  hermaphrodite  brig, 
schooner,  or  sloop.     The  masts  are  first  erected,  and 
these  are  supplied  with  the  necessary  apparatus  of 
spars,  rigging,  and  sails.     The  latter  are  furnished 
by  the  sail-maker,  who  is  sometimes  denominated  the 
ship's  tailor. 


THE    MARINER. 

1.  THE  business  of  the  mariner  consists  in  navi 
gajing  ships  and  other  vessels  from  one  port  to  an 
other.     This  is  an  employment  that  requires  mucr 
decisive  resolution  ;  and  Horace  has  well  said,  tha 
"  his  breast  must  have  been  bound  with  oak  and  triple 
brass,  who  first  committed  his  frail  bark  to  the  tem- 
pestuous  sea."     There  is  certainly  nothing  which 
speaks  louder  in  praise  of  human  ingenuity,  than  that 
art  by  which  man  is  able  to  forsake  the  land,  contend 
successfully  with  winds  and  waves,  and  reach,  with 
unerring  certainty,  his  destined  port  in  some  distant 
part  of  the  world. 

2.  Nor  are  the  skill  and  intrepidity  exhibited  in  this 
arduous  employment,  more  worthy  of  our  admiration, 
than  the  wonderful  advantages  resulting  from  it ;  for, 


THE     MARINER.  179 

\ve  are  indebted  to  the  exercise  of  this  art,  for  those 
improvements  in  our  condition,  which  arise  from  the 
exchange  of  the  superfluities  of  one  country  for  those 
of  another,  and,  above  all,  for  the  interchange  of  sen- 
timents, which  renders  human  knowledge  coextensive 
with  the  world. 

3.  Ship-building  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the 
art  of  navigation,  that  the  historical  part  of  the  for- 
mer subject  is  equally  applicable  to  the  latter.     It  is, 
therefore,  unnecessary  to  be  particular  on  this  point. 
We  shall  merely  supply  some  omissions  in  the  pre- 
ceding article. 

4.  The  sailors  of  antiquity  confined  their  naviga- 
tion chiefly  to  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  inland  seas,  sel- 
dom venturing  out  of  sight  of  land,  unless,  from  their 
knowledge  of  the  coasts  ahead,  they  were  certain  to 
meet  with  it   again   in  a  short  time.     When   they 
thus  ventured  from  the  land,  or  were  driven  from 
it  by  tempests,  the  stars  and  planets  were  their  only 
guides. 

5.  The  qualifications  of  a  skilful  pilot  or  master, 
even  for  the  Mediterranean  seas,  in  those  days,  re- 
quired more  study  and  more  practical  information, 
than  are  necessary  to  render  a  mariner  a  complete 
general  navigator,  in  the  present  improved  state  of 
the  science  of  navigation  ;  for  then  he  must  needs  be 
acquainted,  not  only  with  the  general  management  of 
the  ship,  but  also  with  all  the  ports,  land-marks,  rocks, 
quicksands,  and  other  dangers,  which  lay  in  the  track 
of  his  course.     Besides  this,  he  was  required  to  be 
familiar  with  the  course  of  the  winds,  and  the  indica- 
tions that  preceded   them,  together  with  the  move- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  the  influence  which 
they  were  supposed  to  exert  on  the  weather.     Nor 
was  the  ability  to  read  the  various  omens  which  were 
gathered  from  the  sighing  of  the  wind  in  the  trees, 
Ihe  murmurs  of  the  waters,  and  their  dash  upon  thi- 


180  THE      MARINER. 

shore,  the  flight  of  birds,  and  the  gambol  of  fishes,  a 
qualification  to  be  dispensed  with. 

6.  A  voyage,  in  ancient  times,  was  a  momentous 
undertaking,  and  was  usually  preceded  by  sacrifices 
to  those  gods  who  were  supposed  to  preside  over  the 
winds  and  the  waves.     All  omens  were  carefully  re- 
garded  ;  and  a  very  small  matter,  such  as  the  perch- 
ing of  swallows  on  the  ship,  or  an  accidental  sneeze 
to  the  left,  was  sufficient  to  delay  departure.     When, 
under  proper  auspices,  a  vessel  or  fleet  had  set  sail, 
and  had   advanced  some  distance,  it  was  customary 
to  release  a  number  of  doves,  which  had  been  brought 
from  home.     The  safe  arrival  of  these  birds  at  the 
houses  of  the  voyagers,  was  considered  an  auspicious 
omen  of  the  return  of  the  fleet. 

7.  Having  escaped  the  multiplied  dangers  of  the 
sea,  the  sailors,  on  their  return,  fulfilled   the  vows 
whjch  they  had  made  before  their  departure,  or  in 
seasons  of  peril,  offering  thanks  to  Neptune,  and  sac- 
rifices  to  Jupiter,  or  some  other  of  their  gods,  to  whose 
protection   they    may   have    committed    themselves. 
Those  who  had  suffered  shipwreck,  felt  themselves 
under  greater  obligations  of  gratitude ;  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  sacrifices,  they  commonly  offered 
the  garment  in  which  they  had  been  saved,  together 
with  a  pictorial  representation  of  the  disaster.     If  the 
individual  escaped  only  with  life,  his  clothing  having 
been  totally  lost,  his  hair  was  shorn  from  the  head, 
and  consecrated  to  the  tutelar  deity. 

8.  There  is  much  that  is  beautiful  in  these  simple 
acts  of  piety ;  and  similar  customs,  with  regard  to 
shipwrecked  mariners,  are  still  in  existence  in  the 
Catholic  countries  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  but  the  wor- 
ship of  the  heathen  deities  having  been  discontinued, 
a  favourite  saint,  or  perchance  the  true  God,  is  sub- 
stituted  for  item.     Although  such  acts  of  piety  may 
not  avail  to  avert  impending  danger,  yet  their  natural 


THE      MARINER.  181 

tendency  doubtless  is  to  inspire  courage  to  meet  it, 
when  it  may  arise. 

9.  The  Carthaginians,  for  several  centuries,  were 
more  extensively  engaged  in  commerce,  than    any 
other  people  of  antiquity ;  and,  as  they  carried  on 
their  lucrative  trade  with  other  nations  and  their  own 
colonies,  by  means  of  ships,  they  exceeded  all  others 
in  the  art  of  navigation.     Not  content  with  exploring 
every  nook  and  corner  of  the  Mediterranean,  they 
passed  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  as  the  promontories 
of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  were  then  called,  and  visit- 
ed the  Atlantic  coasts  of  Europe,  as  far  north  as  the 
Scilly  Islands,  then  denominated  the  Cassorides.     It 
is  asserted  by  Pliny,  that  Hanno  even  circumnaviga- 
ted Africa. 

10.  The  destruction  of  Carthage  by  the  Romans, 
in  the  year   before  Christ   146,  interfered  with  im- 
provements  in  the  art  of  navigation  ;  and  the  invasion 
of  the  northern  barbarians,  several  centuries  after- 
wards, extinguished  nearly  all  the  knowledge  which 
had  been  previously  acquired ;  nor  was  it  again  re- 
vived, and  brought  to  the  state  in  which  it  existed  in 
the  most  flourishing  era  of  antiquity,  until  about  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

11.  After  the  period  just  mentioned,  improvements 
in  this  art  followed  each  other  in  close  succession. 
The  chief  cause  of  this  rapid  advance  was  the  discov- 
ery of  the  polarity  of  the  magnet,  and  the  consequent 
invention  of  the  mariner's  compass.     The  power  of 
the  loadstone  to  attract  iron,  was  early  known  to  the 
Greeks  and  Chinese  ;  but  its  property  of  pointing  in 
a  particular  direction,  when   suspended,  and  left  to 
move  freely,  was  not  suspected  until  about  the  year 
1200  of  our  era. 

12.  At  first,  mariners  were  accustomed  to  place 
the  magnetic  needle  on  a  floating  straw,  whe'never 
they  needed  its  guidance  ;  but,  in  1302,  one  Flavio 


182  THE    MARINER. 

Giaio,  an  obscure  individual  of  the  kingdom  of  Na- 
ples, placed  it  on  a  permanent  pivot,  and  added  a 
circular  card.  Still,  it  was  nearly  half  a  century 
after  this,  before  navigators  properly  appreciated,  and 
implicitly  relied  on  this  new  guide.  The  compass 
did  not  reach  its  present  improved  state,  until  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

13.  As  soon  as  the  reputation  of  this  instrument 
had  become  well  established,  navigation  assumed  a 
bolder  character  ;  and  the  capacity  of  vessels  having 
been  enlarged  to  meet  this  adventurous  spirit,  oars 
were  laid  aside  as  inapplicable,  and  sails  alone  were 
relied  upon,  as  means  of  propulsion. 

14.  Navigation,  in  the  early  days  of  its  revival, 
was  indebted  to  the  Portuguese  for  many  valuable 
improvements.     To  them,  also,  is  the  world  under  ob- 
ligation for  many  splendid  discoveries,  among  which 
was  that  of  a  passage  by  sea  to  India.     This  long, 
desired  discovery  was  made  in  1497,  by  Vasco  de 
Gama,  who  had  been  sent  out  for  the  purpose  by 
Emanuel,  king  of  Portugal. 

15.  Five  years  before  Vasco  de  Gama  had  found 
his  way  to  India,  by  the  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,   Columbus   made  his  discovery  of  the  New 
World.     This  great  man  had  conceived  or  adopted 
the  idea,  that  the  form  of  our  earth  was  spherical,  in 
opposition  to  the  generally  received  opinion,  that  it 
was   an   extended   plane ;   and   learning  that  India 
stretched  to  an  unknown  distance  eastward,  he  sup- 
posed,  that,  by  sailing  in  an  opposite  direction,  the 
navigator  would  meet  with  its  eastern  extremity. 

16.  Pursuing  this  idea,  he  applied  successively  to 
the  governments  of  several  states  and  kingdoms  for 
patronage  to  enable  him  to  test  its  correctness ;  and 
having,  at  length,  succeeded  in  obtaining  three  small 
vessels,  with  the  necessary  equipments,  from  Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella,  sovereigns  of  Arragon  and  Castile, 


THE      MARINER.  183 

he  proceeded  on  his  proposed  voyage,  which  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  the  American  continent. 

17.  These  two  great  discoveries  gave  another  pow- 
erful  impulse  to  navigation  ;  and  inventions  and  im- 
provements   multiplied    in    rapid    succession.      The 
learned  and  ingenious,  who  at  different  times  have 
turned  their  attention  to  the  subject  of  navigation, 
have  supplied  the  mariner  with  various  means,  by 
which  he  can  direct  his  course  on  the  deep  with  ac 
curacy  and  certainty. 

18.  The  instruments  now  employed  in  navigation, 
are  the  mariner's  compass,  the  azimuth  compass,  the 
quadrant,  the  sextant,  the  chronometer,  the  half  min- 
ute-glass, the  log,  and  the  sounding-line.     In  addition 
to  these,  the  general  navigator  needs  accurate  maps 
and  charts,  lists  of  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  every 
part  of  the  world,  the  time  of  high  water  at  every 
port,  and  a  book  of  navigation,  containing  tables,  to 
aid  him  in  performing  various  calculations  with  facil- 
ity ;  and,  with  a  view  to  calculate  the  longitude  by 
observation,  he  should  be  furnished  with  the  Nautical 
Almanac,  containing  the  places  and  declinations  of 
the  fixed  stars  and   planets,  and  especially  the  dis- 
tances of  the  moon  from  the  sun  and  other  heavenly 
bodies. 

19.  The  mariner's  compass,  as  has  been  before  ob 
served,  is  employed  to  indicate  the  various  points  of 
the  horizon ;  but  the  magnetic  needle  varying  more 
or  less  from  the  exact  northern  and  southern  direction, 
the  azimuth  compass  is  used,  to  show  the  degree  of 
that  variation.     The  quadrant  and  sextant  are  em- 
ployed to  ascertain  the  altitude  and  relative  position 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  that  the  mariner  may  deter- 
mine the  latitude  and  longitude  in  which  his  vessel 
may  be.     The  chronometer  is  nothing  more  than  a 
watch,  designed  to  measure  time  with  great  accuracy. 
This  instrument  is  used  to  determine  the  longitude. 


184  THE     MARINER. 

20.  The  log  is  used  for  ascertaining  the  velocity 
of  the  ship  on  the  water.     It  consists  of  a  quadran- 
gular piece  of  wood,  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  to 
which  is  attached  a  small  cord,  having  knots  in  it,  at 
proper  distances  from  each  other.     In  the  applica- 
tion, the  log  is  thrown  upon  the  water,  where  it  will 
not  be  disturbed  by  the  wake  of  the  ship ;  and  the 
cord,  being  wound  upon  a  reel,  passes  from  it  as  fast 
as  the  vessel  moves  in  the  water.     The  number  of 
knots,  which  pass  off  every  half  minute,  indicates  the 
number  of  miles  which  the  ship  sails  per  hour  ;  hence, 
in  nautical  language,  knots  and  miles  are  synonymous 
terms.     The  sounding-line  is  a  small  cord,  with  sev- 
eral pounds  of  lead  of  a  conical  figure  attached  to  it ; 
and  is  employed  in  trying  the  depth  of  the  water,  and 
the  quality  of  the  bottom. 

21.  Navigation  is  either  common  or  proper.     The 
former  is  usually  called  coasting,  as  the  vessel  is  ei- 
ther on  the  same  or  neighboring  coast,  and  is  seldom 
far  from  land,  or  out  of  sounding.     The  latter  is  ap- 
plied  to   long  voyages  upon  the  main  ocean,  when 
considerable  skill  in  mathematics  and  astronomy,  to- 
gether with  an  aptness  in  the  use  of  instruments  for 
celestial  observations,  are  required  in  the  captain  or 
master. 

22.  The  application  of  steam  to  the  purposes  of 
navigation,  is  one  of  the  greatest   achievements  of 
modern  science  and  art.     The  great  utility  of  this 
agent  is  particularly  conspicuous  in  our  vast  country, 
where  large  rivers  and  bays  and  mighty  lakes  are  nu- 
merous, and  where  an  energetic  people  and  an  ac- 
tive commerce  require  a  rapid  intercommunication. 
Steamboats  are  but  little  used  on  the  great  oceans ; 
as  merchandise  can  there  be  more  cheaply  and  safely 
transported  in  vessels  propelled  by  sails.     Since  the 
year  1839,  two  lines  of  steam  packets  have  been  run- 
ning regularly  between  this  country  and  Great  Brit. 


THE     MARINER.  185 

ain.    They  commonly  occupy,  in  crossing  the  Atlan- 
tic, between  twelve  and  fifteen  days. 

23.  The    chief   obstacle   to    the    employment   of 
steam,  in  long  voyages,  arises  from  the  difficulty  of 
generating  a  sufficient  quantity  of  this  agent,  with  the 
fuel  which  could  be  carried  without  overburdening 
the  vessel ;  but  a  remedy  for  this  inconvenience  will 
probably  be  found,  in  improvements  in  the  construe- 
lion  of  steam. generators. 

24.  The  power  of  connfied  steam  acting   by  its 
expansive  force,  was   discovered   by   the   celebrated 
Marquis  of  Worcester,  about  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  ;  but  the  first  working  steam-engine 
was  constructed  in  1705,  by  Thomas  Newcomer,  a 
blacksmith     of    Dartmouth,    Devonshire,    England. 
About  the  year  1769,  James  Watt,  a  native  of  Glas- 
gow, added  a  great  number  of  improvements  of  his 
own  invention. 

25.  Steam  navigation  was  first  suggested  in  Eng- 
land, in  1736,  by  Jonathan  Hulls.     It  was  first  tried 
in  practice  in  France,  in  1782,  by  the  Marquis  de 
Jouffroy,  and  nearly  at  the  same  time  by  James  Rum- 
sey,  of  Virginia,  and   John  Fitch,  of  Philadelphia; 
but  it   was   first   rendered   completely  successful  at 
New-York,  in  1807,  by  Robert  Fulton. 

26.  The  sailors  employed  by  the  captain,  to  aid 
him  in  navigating  his  ship,  are  called  a  crew;  and 
the  individuals  composing  it  are   responsible  to  the 
captain,  the  captain  to  the  owners,  and  the  owners  to 
the  merchants,  for  all  damages  to  goods,  arising  from 
negligence  or  bad  management. 

27.  In   England,   ample    provisions   are   made   at 
Greenwich  Hospital  or  by  pensions,  for  seamen  dis- 
abled by  age  or  otherwise.    These  benefits,  however, 
are  extended  only  to  those  who  have  been  engaged  in 
the  national  service.     This  noble  and  politic  institu- 
tion  is  supported  partly  bv  nublic  bounty,  and  in  part 


186  THE     MARINER. 

by  private  donations,  and  a  tax  of  sixpence  per  month, 
deducted  from  the  wages  of  all  the  seamen  of  the 
nation.  Marine  Hospitals,  for  the  temporary  accom- 
modation  of  seamen,  suffering  from  disease,  have 
been  established  in  several  cities  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  of  the  United  States. 

28.  Mariners   have  ever  been  a  distinct  class  of 
men,  and,  in  their  general  characters,  very  similar  in 
every  age  of  the  world.     Their  superstitious  regard 
of  the  many  signs  of  good  and  bad  luck,  is  nearly  the 
same  now.  that  it  was  two  or  three  thousand  years 
ago.     In  ancient  times,  they  had  their  lucky  and  un- 
lucky days  ;  and  now,  very  few  sailors  are  willing  to 
leave   port  on  Friday,  lest  the   circumstance  bring 
upon  them  some  disaster,  before  the  conclusion  of  the 
proposed  voyage. 

29.  Superstitions  of  this  nature,  however,  are  not 
confined  to  the  navigators  of  the  deep.     Even  in  this 
country,  where  the  inhabitants  enjoy  superior  intel- 
lectual  advantages,  and  boast  a  high  degree  of  intel- 
ligence, thousands  of  persons  who  have  never  been 
on  board  of  a  ship,  are  still  under  the  influence  of 
such  heathen  notions,  notwithstanding  their  pretended 
belief  in  Christianity,  which,  in  all  cases,  when  prop, 
erly  understood,  would   prevent  the   forebodings  of 
evil,  or  expectations  of  good,  from  unimportant  prog 
nostics. 


THE    MERCHANT. 

1.  THE  word  merchant,  in  its  most  extended  appli- 
cation,  signifies,  a  person  who  deals  in  merchandise. 
This  definition,  with  some  exceptions,  agrees  very 
well  with  general  usage  in  this  country  ;  although,  in 
England,  the  term  is  principally  restricted  to  those 
dealers  who  export  and  import  goods  on  their  own 
account,  either  in  their  own  or  in  chartered  vessels. 
In  the  United  States,  dealers  of  this  class  are  denom. 
inated  importing  and  exporting  merchants  ;  or  simply, 
importers  and  exporters. 

2.  Such  merchants,  both  here  and  in  Europe,  are 
distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  kind  of  goods  in 
which  they  traffic,  or  by  (he  foreign  country  in  which 
they  have  their  chief  correspondence  ;  thus,  one  who 
deals  in   tobacco  is  called  a  tobacco-merchant ;   a 


188  THE     MERCHANT. 

wholesale  dealer  in  wines  is  called  a  wine-merchant ; 
a  West  India,  East  India,  or  Turkey  merchant,  ex. 
ports  goods  to,  and  imports  goods  from,  those  respect, 
ive  countries. 

3.  The  business  of  merchants,  in  foreign  countries, 
is  usually  transacted  by  agents,  called  factors,  or  com- 
mission  merchants,  to  whom  goods  are  consigned  to 
be  sold,  and  by  whom  other  articles  of  merchandise 
are   purchased    arid    returned    according   to    order. 
Sometimes  an  agent,  called  a  supercargo,  accompa- 
nies the  vessel ;  or  the  captain  may  act  in  this  ca- 
pacity.    Goods,  however,  are  often  obtained  by  or. 
der,  without  the  intervention  of  an  agency  of  any 
kind. 

4.  Almost  every  sort  of  foreign  merchandise  is 
subject  to  the  imposition  of  duties  by  the  government 
of  the  country  in  which  it  is  received.     These  duties 
are  paid  at  the  Custom- House,  to  persons  appointed 
by  the  constituted  authorities  to  collect  them.     As 
soon  as  a  vessel  from  abroad  has  entered  the  harbor, 
it  is  visited  by  a  custom-house  officer,  called  a  Tide- 
Waiter^  whose  business  it  is  to  see  that  no  part  of  the 
cargo  is  removed,  until  measures  have  been  taken  to 
secure  the  customs. 

5.  Goods  brought  into  the  country  by  importers, 
are  frequently  sold,  in   succession,  to  several   mer- 
chants of  different  grades,  before  they  come  to  the 
hands  of  the  consumers.     Cloths  or  stuffs  of  different 
kinds,  for  instance,  may  be  first  sold  by  the  bale  to 
one  merchant,  who,  in  turn,  may  dispose  of  them  by 
the  package  to  another,  and  this  last  may  retail  them 
in  small  quantities  to  a  greater  number  of  customers. 

6.  Dealers   in  a  small  way,  in   cities  and  large 
towns,  are  frequently  denominated  shop-keepers  ;  but 
those  who  do  an  extensive  retail  business,  are  usually 
called  merchants  or  grocers,  according  as  they  deal 
in  dry  goods  or  groceries.     In  cities,  the  extensive 


THE     MERCHANT.  189 

demand  for  goods  enables  retailers  to  confine  their 
attention  to  particular  classes  of  articles ;  such  as 
groceries,  hardware,  crockery,  a  few  kinds  of  dry 
goods,  or  some  articles  of  domestic  manufacture ; 
but  in  other  places,  where  trade  is  more  limited,  the 
merchant  is  obliged  to  keep  a  more  general  assort- 
ment. 

7.  The  general  retail  merchant  is  compelled  to 
transact  business  with  a  great  number  of  wholesale 
dealers,  to  whom  he  pays  cash  in  hand,  or  agrees  to 
pay  it  at  some  future  period,  say,  in  four,  six,  nine, 
or  twelve  months.      The  people  in  his  vicinity,  in 
turn,  purchase  his  goods  on  similar  conditions,  with 
this  difference,  that  they  often  substitute  for  cash  ag- 
ricultural and  other  productions,  which  the  merchant, 
at  length,  turns  into  ready  money. 

8.  Barter,  or  the  exchange  of  commodities,  pre- 
vails to  a  great  extent,  in  country  places,  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  United  States.     In  such  exchanges, 
the  currency  of  the  country  is  made  the  standard  of 
reference  :  for  example  ;  a  merchant  receiving  from 
a  customer  twenty  bushels  of  wheat,  estimated  at  one 
dollar   per  bushel,  gives   in  return    twenty  dollars' 
worth  of  goods,  at  his  marked  prices  ;    or,  in  other 
words,  he  gives  credit  for  the  wheat,  and  charges  the 
goods.     On  the  same  principle,  merchants  of  the  first 
class  often  exchange  the  productions  of  their  own 
country  for  those  of  another. 

9.  Merchants,  or  store-keepers,  as  they  are  indif- 
ferently called  in  some  places,  whose  location  is  dis~ 
tant  from  the  seaboard,  visit  the  city  in  which  they 
deal  once  or  twice  a  year,  for  the  purpose  of  laying 
in  their  stock  of  goods  ;  but,  in  order  to  keep  up  their 
assortment,  they  sometimes  order  small  lots  in  the 
interim.     Retailers  more  conveniently  situated,  pur 
chase  a  smaller  amount  of  goods  at  a  time,  and  re- 
plenish  their  stores  more  frequently. 


190  THE     MERCHANT. 

10.  Commerce,  on  the  principles  of  barter,  or  a 
simple  exchange  of  one  commodity  for  another,  must 
have  been  practised  in  the  early  days  of  Adam  him- 
self;  although  we  have  no  positive  record  of  the  fact  ; 
for  it  cannot  be  imagined  that  the  arts,  which  are  sta- 
ted in  the  Scripture  to  have  flourished  long  before  the 
flood,  could  have  existed  without  commercial  trans- 
actions.     The  period  at  which  the  precious  metals 
began  to  be  employed  as  a  standard  of  value,  or  as  a 
medium  of  commercial  intercourse,  is   not   known. 
They  were  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, and  probably  many  centuries  before  his  day. 

11.  The  earliest  hint  respecting  the  existence  of 
trade  between  different  nations,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
book  of  Genesis,  where  the  transaction  regarding 
the  sale  of  Joseph  to  the  Ishmaelites,  or  Midianites,  is 
mentioned.     These  merchants,  it  appears,  were  trav- 
ellmg  in  a  caravan  to  Egypt,  then  the  most  cultivated 
and  refined  part  of  the  world.     Their  camels  were 
loaded  with  balm,  myrrh,  and  spices.     The  first  of 
these  articles  was  the  production  of  Gilead  ;  the  sec- 
ond, of  Arabia ;  and  the  last  was  probably  from  In- 
dia ;  as  in  that  country  the  finer  spices  are  produced. 
If  this  were  really  the  case,  commerce,  in  its  widest 
sense,  was  carried  on  much  earlier  than  is  generally 
supposed. 

12.  The  fertility  of  Egypt,  and  its  central  position, 
made  it  an  emporium  of  commerce ;   and  there  it 
flourished,  in  an  eminent  degree,  long  before  it  was 
cultivated  in  Europe  and  in  Western  Asia.    For  sev- 
eral ages,  however,  the  Egyptians,  on  account  of 
their  superstitious  prejudices  against  the  sea,  carried 
on  no  maritime  commerce. 

13.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  first  people  who 
used  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  as  a  highway  for  the 
transportation  of  merchandise.   Tyre  and  Sidon  were 
their  chief  cities ;  and  the  latter  was  called  a  great, 


THE     MERCHANT.  191 

and  the  former  a  strong  city,  even  in  the  time  of 
Joshua,  fifteen  hundred  years  before  the  advent  of 
Christ.  These  people,  in  their  original  association  as 
a  nation,  possessed  but  a  small  territory  ;  and,  being 
surrounded  by  many  powerful  nations,  they  never  at- 
tempted its  enlargement  on  the  land  side. 

14.  The  settlement  of  the  Israelites  in  the  "  Prom. 
ised  Land,"  circumscribed  their  limits  to  a  very  small 
territory,  and  compelled   them  to  colonize  a  great 
number   of  their    inhabitants.     The  colonies  which 
they  formed  in  the  various  countries  bordering  upon 
the  Mediterranean  and  on  the  islands,  enlarged  the 
boundaries  of  civilization,  and  greatly  extended  their 
trade. 

15.  The  Phoenicians  continued  their  colonial  sys- 
tem for  many  centuries  after  the  period  just  mention- 
ed,  and  even  extended  it  to  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  Eu- 
rope.    But  the  most  distinguished  of  all  their  colo- 
nies was  the  one  which  founded  the  city  of  Carthage, 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  about  the  year  869 
before  Christ.     Elissa,  or,  as  she  is  otherwise  called, 
Dido,  the  reputed  leader  of  this  colony,  makes  a  con- 
spicuous figure  in  one  of  the  books  of  Virgil's  ^Eneid. 

16.  Carthage,  adopting  the  same  system  which  had 
so  long  been  pursued  by  the  great  cities  of  Phoenicia, 
rose,  in  a  few  centuries,  to  wealth  and  splendor.    But, 
changing,  at  length,   her   mercantile  for  a  military 
character,  she  ruled  her  dependent  colonies  with  a 
rod  of  despotism.     This  produced  a  spirit  of  resist- 
ance on  the  part  of  her  distant  subjects,  who  applied 
to  Rome  for  aid  to  resist  her  tyranny.     The  conse. 
quence   of  this   application    was    the    three   "  Punic 
wars,"  so  renowned  in  history,  and  which  terminated 
in  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  in  the  year  146  before 
the  Christian  era.     During  the  first  Punic  war,  Car- 
thage contained  seven  hundred  thousand  inhabitants ; 
but  at  its  destruction,  scarcely  five  thousand  were 
found  within  its  walls. 


192  THE     MERCHANT. 

17.  The  period  of  the  greatest  prosperity  of  Tyre, 
may  be  placed  588  years  before  Christ,  at  which  time 
the  remarkable  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  concerning  it 
were  delivered.    Soon  after  this,  it  was  greatly  injured 
by  Nebuchadnezzar ;  and  was  finally  destroyed   by 
Alexander  the  Great,  about  the  year  332  before  Christ. 

18.  A  new  channel  was  opened  to  commerce  by 
the  monarch  just  mentioned,  he  having  founded  a  city 
in  Egypt,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Alexandria. 
His  object  seems  to  have  been,  to  render  this  city  the 
centre  of  the  commercial  world  ;  and  its  command- 
ing position,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  was  well  cal- 
culated to  make  it  so  ;  since  it  was  easy  of  access  from 
the  west  by  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  east  by  the 
Red  Sea,  and  from  the  central  countries  of  Asia  by 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez. 

J9.  The  plans  of  Alexander  were  carried  out  with 
vigor  by  Ptolemy,  who  received  Egypt  as  his  portion 
of  the  Macedonian  empire,  after  the  death  of  his  mas- 
ter ;  and,  by  his  liberality,  he  induced  great  numbers 
of  people  to  settle  in  the  new  metropolis  for  the  pur. 
poses  of  trade.  Far  south,  on  the  Red  Sea,  he  also 
founded  a  city,  which  he  called  Berenice,  and  which 
he  designed  as  a  depdt  for  the  precious  commodities 
brought  into  his  kingdom  from  India.  From  this 
city,  goods  were  transported  on  camels  across  the 
country,  to  a  port  on  the  Nile  ;  and  thence  they 
were  taken  down  the  river  to  Alexandria. 

20.  Ptolemy  also  kept  large  fleets  both  on  the 
Mediterranean  and  on  the  Red  Sea,  for  the  protection 
of  commerce,  and  the  defence  of  his  dominions;  yet, 
the  Egyptians,  even  under  the  Ptolemies,  never  at* 
tempted  a  direct  trade  to  India.  They,  as  the  Phoe- 
nicians and  their  own  progenitors  had  done  for  ages, 
depended  upon  the  Arabian  merchants  for  the  pro- 
ductions of  that  country. 

JS1.  The-  Greeks,  before  their  subjugation  to  the 


THE     MERCHANT.  193 

Roman  power,  had  paid  much  attention  to  nautical 
affairs ;  but  this  had  been  chiefly  for  warlike  domin- 
ion,  rather  than  for  commercial  purposes.  The  city 
of  Corinth,  however,  had  become  wealthy  by  the  at- 
tention of  its  inhabitants  to  manufactures  and  trade ; 
but  it  was  destroyed  by  the  same  barbarian  people 
who,  about  this  time,  annihilated  Carthage.  Both  of 
these  cities  were  afterwards  favored  by  Julius  Caesar  ; 
but  they  never  regained  anything  like  their  former 
importance. 

22.  Rome  having,  at  length,  obtained  the  complete 
dominion  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  the  coun» 
tries  bordering  upon  it,  as  well  as  that  of  many  others 
more  distant,  and  less  easy  of  access,  became  the 
great  mart  for  the  sale  of  merchandise  of  every  de- 
scription, from  all  parts  of  the  known  world.     For 
the  various  commodities  brought  to  the  city,  the  Ro- 
mans paid  gold  and  silver ;  as  they  had  nothing  else 
to  export  in  return.     The  money  which  they  had  ex- 
acted as  tribute,  or  which  they  had  obtained  by  plun- 
der,  was  thus  returned  to  the  nations  from  which  it 
had  been  taken. 

23.  The   subjected    provinces   continued    to    pour 
their  choicest  productions  into  Rome,  as  long  as  she 
retained  the  control  of  the  empire  ;   and  thus  they 
contributed  to  enervate,  by  the  many  luxuries  they 
afforded,  the  power"  by  which  they  had  been  subdued. 
The  eternal  city,  as  she  is  sometimes  called,  in  the 
days  of  her  extensive  dominion,  contained  about  three 
millions  of  inhabitants  ;  and,  although  this  immense 
population  was  chiefly  supplied  by  importations,  the 
Romans  never  esteemed  the  character  of  a  merchant. 
They  despised  the  peaceful  pursuits  of  industry,  whilst 
they  regarded  it  honorable  to  attack  without  provo- 
cation,  and  plunder  without  remorse,  the  weaker  na- 
tions of  the  earth. 

24.  In  the  year  328  of  the  Christian  era,  Byzan 


194  THE     MERCHANT. 

tium  was  made  the  seat  of  government  of  the  Roman 
empire  by  Constantine,  who,  with  a  view  of  perpetu- 
ating his  own  name,  called  his  new  capital  Constanti- 
nople. However  necessary  this  removal  may  have 
been,  to  keep  in  subjugation  the  eastern  provinces,  it 
was  fatal  to  the  security  ef  the  western  division.  The 
rivalry  between  the  two  cities  produced  frequent  con. 
tests  for  dominion  ;  and  these,  together  with  the  gen- 
eral  corruption  and  effeminacy  of  the  people  them, 
selves,  rendered  it  frnpossible  to  resist  the  repeated 
and  fierce  invasions  of  the  barbarous  people  from  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe. 

25.  These  invasions  commenced  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourth  century  ;  and,  in  less  than  two  hundred 
years,  a  great  portion  of  the  inhabitants  was  destroy. 
ed,  and   the  whole  Western  empire  was  completely 
subverted.     The  conquerors  were  too  barbarous  to 
encourage  or  protect  commerce  ;  and,  like  the  arts 
of  peace  and  civilization  generally,  it  sunk,  with  few 
exceptions,  amid  the  general  ruin. 

26.  The  empire  of  Constantinople,  or,  as  it  is  usu- 
ally called,  the  Eastern  empire,  continued  in   exist- 
ence several  centuries  after  the  Western  empire  had 
been  overrun  ;    and  commerce  continued  to  flow,  for 
a  considerable  time,  through  some  of  its  former  chan- 
nels to  the   capital.      At   length,  the  Indian   trade, 
which  had  so  long  been  carried  on  chiefly  through 
Egypt  by  the  Red  Sea,  was  changed  to  a  more  north- 
ern route,  through  Persia. 

27.  Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  pretend- 
ed mission  of  Mohammed,  or  Mahomet,  in  609  of  the 
Christian  era,  the  power  of  the  Arabians,  since  called 
Saracens,  began  to  rise.      The  followers  of  the  Proph- 
et, impelled  by  religious  zeal,  and  allured  by  plunder, 
in  less  than  150  years  extended  their  dominion  almost 
to  the  borders  of  China  on  the  one  side,  and  to  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  on  the  other.     The  trade 


THE      MERCHANT.  l'J5 

of  the  East,  of  course,  fell  into_  their  hands  ;  and  they 
continued  to  enjoy  it,  until  they,  in  turn,  were  sub- 
dued by  the  Turks. 

28.  So  great  was  the  prejudice  of  the  Christians 
against  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  that,  for  a  long 
time,  it  was  considered  heretical  for  the  former  to 
trade  with  the  latter  ;  but  the  Saracens  having  a  vast 
extent  of  territory,  and  having  control  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  Red  Seas,  as  well  as  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
carried  on  an  extensive  trade  among  themselves. 

29.  The  first  European  power  which  rose  to  com- 
mercial eminence,  after  the  destruction  of  the  West- 
ern empire,  was  the  republic  of  Venice.     This  im- 
portant city  owed  its  origin  to  some  fugitives,  who 
fled  for  their  lives  to  a  number  of  small  islands  in  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  during  the  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Huns, 
under  Attila,  in  the  year  452. 

30.  The  houses  first  built  by  the  refugees,  were 
constructed  of  mud  and  seagrass  ;  and,  so  insignifi- 
cant were  they  in  their  appearance,  that  a  writer  of 
that  period  compares  them  to  a  collection  of  the  nests 
of  water-fowls.      The  number  of  these  islands,  on 
which  so  splendid  a  city  was  afterwards  built,  was, 
according  to  some,  seventy-two  ;    but,  according  to 
others,  ninety,  or  even  one  hundred  and  fifty.     For 
a  considerable  time,  the  distinction  of  rich  and  poor 
was  not  known ;  for  all  lived  upon  the  same  fish-diet, 
and  in  houses  of  similar  form  and  materials. 

31.  In  less  than  a  century,  the  inhabitants  of  these 
islands  had  established  a  regular  government  ;   and, 
in  the  year  732,  we  find  them  venturing  beyond  the 
Adriatic  into  the  Mediterranean,  even  as  far  as  Con- 
stantinople, trading  in  silks,  purple  draperies,  and  In- 
dian commodities.     In  813,  the  French  commenced 
trading  to  Alexandria,  and,  in  a  few  years,  the  Vene- 
tians followed  their  example,  in  despite  of  the  eccle- 
siastical prohibitions  against  intercourse  with  the  fol- 


196  THE     MERCHANT 

lowers  of  Mohammed.  In  the  tenth  century,  Amalli, 
Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Florence,  began  to  rival  Venice  in 
trade. 

32.  The  crusades,  which,  for  two  centuries  from 
the  year  1095,  engaged  so  much  of  the  attention  of 
the  Christian  nations  of  Europe,  greatly  promoted  the 
interests  of  the  commercial  cities  of  Italy  ;  as  the  ar- 
mies in  these  expeditions  were  dependent  on  them 
for  provisions,  and  for  the  means  of  crossing  the  sea, 
which  lay  between  them  and  the  Holy  Land.     They 
also  gave  a  new  and  powerful  impulse  to  commerce 
in  general,  by  giving  the  people,  in  the  unrefined  parts 
of  Europe,  a  knowledge  of  the  elegances  and  luxuries 
of  the  East. 

33.  In  the  thirteenth  century,  commerce  and  man 
ufactures  began  to  command  considerable  attention 
in  Germany  and  the  adjacent  states ;  but  as  the  seas 
and  rivers  were  infested  with  pirates,  and  the  roads 
with  banditti,  it  became  necessary  for  those  engaged 
in  commerce  to  adopt  measures  to  protect  their  com- 
modities,  while  on  the  way  from  one  place  to  another. 
The  citizens  of  Hamburg  and  Lubeck  first  united  for 
this  purpose ;  and  the  advantages  of  such  a  union  of 
strength  becoming  apparent,  many  other  cities  soon 
entered  into  the  confederation. 

34.  This  association  was  denominated  the  Hanse, 
or  league,  and  the  cities  thus  united  were  called  Hanse 
Towns.     Most  of  the  commercial  towns  in  the  north- 
ern parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  at  length,  be- 
came  parties  to  the  Hanseatic  league.     The  number 
of  these  cities  varied,  at  different  periods  ;  but  in  the 
days  of  the  greatest  prosperity  of  the  association,  it 
amounted  to  eighty-five. 

35.  Representatives  from  the  different  cities  met 
triennially  at  Lubeck,  where  their  common  treasury 
and  archives  were  kept.     By  this  assembly,  which  was 
called  a  diet,  rules  for  the  regulation  of  commercial 


THE     MERCHANT.  197 

dK.urcourse  were  made,  and  other  business  transact- 
ed, which  related  to  the  general  welfare  of  the  con- 
federation. 

36.  In  the  fourteenth  century,  the  league,  in  all 
parts  of  Europe,  attained  a  high  degree  of  political 
importance,  and  developed   that   commercial   policy 
which  it  had  originated,  and  which  has  since  been 
adopted  by  all  civilized  nations.     The  objects  of  the 
allied  cities  were  now  declared  to  be — to  protect  their 
commerce  against  pillage,  to  guard  and  extend  their 
foreign  trade,  and,  as  far  as  possible,-  to  monopolize 
it,  to   maintain   and    extend  the  privileges  obtained 
from  the  princes  of  different  nations,  and  to   make 
rules  or  laws  for  the  regulation  of  trade,  as  well  as  to 
establish  the  necessary  tribunals  for  their  due  execu- 
tion.    The  decisions  of  their  courts  were  respected 
by  the  civil  authorities  of  the  countries  to  which  their 
trade  extended. 

37.  The  treasury  was  chiefly  supplied  by  duties 
on  merchandise  ;  and  the  great  wealth  thus  acquired 
enabled  the  allied  cities  to  obtain  commercial  privile- 
ges from  needy  princes,  for  pecuniary  accommoda- 
tions.    The  league,  in  defending  its  commerce,  even 
carried  on  wars  against  kingdoms  ;  and,  at  length,  by 
its  wealth  and  naval  power,  became  mistress  of  the 
Northern  seas,  and  rendered  the  different  cities  of  the 
confederation  in  a  great  measure  independent  of  the 
sovereigns  of  the  countries  in  which  they  were  sit- 
uated. 

38.  The  conduct  of  the  Hanse  Towns,  at  length, 
excited  the  jealousies  of  those  sovereigns  who  had, 
for  a  long  time,  favored  their  union  ;  and  the  princes 
of  Europe  generally,  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
value  of  commerce,  both  as  means  of  enriching  their 
people,  and   of  filling    their   own   coffers,  combined 
against  the  association.     In  1518,  the  governments 
of  several  states  commanded  all  their  cities  to  with- 


198  THE     MERCHANT. 

draw  from  the  league,  which  soon  after  voluntarily 
excluded  some  others.  After  this  the  Hanse  gradu- 
ally sunk  in  importance,  and  finally  ceased  to  exist 
in  1630. 

39.  The  trade  to  the  East  Indies  continued  to  be 
carried  on  through  Persia  and  Egypt,  subject  to  the 
extortions  of  the  Saracens,  and  the  still  severer  exac- 
tions of  the  merchants  of  the  Italian  cities,  until  the 
route  to  those  countries,  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
was  discovered. 

40.  The  use  of  this  new  pathway  of  commerce, 
combined  with  the  discovery  of  America,  caused  an 
entire  change  in  both  the  political  and  commercial 
state  of  Europe.     A  strong  desire  of  visiting  the  re- 
mote parts  of  the  world,  thus  laid  open  to  the  people 
of  Europe,  immediately  arose,  not  only  among  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  but  also  among  other  na- 
tions.   Colonies  were  soon  planted  in  the  East  and  in 
the  West  ;  and  the  whole  world  may  be  said  to  have 
been  inspired  with  new  energy. 

41.  The  Portuguese,  being  considerably  in  advance 
of  the  other  Atlantic  nations  in  the  art  of  navigation, 
soon  gained  the  entire  control  of  the  East  India  trade, 
and  were  thus  raised  to  great  eminence,  prosperity, 
and  power.     Their  dominions  became  extensive  in 
Africa  and  Asia,  and  their  navy  superior  to  any  that 
had  been  seen  for  several  ages  before. 

42.  In  1580,  or  eighty-three  years  after  Vasco  de 
Gama  found  his  way,  by  the  Cape,  to  Calicut,  Portu. 
gal  was  subdued  by  Philip  II.,  king  of  Spain.     The 
Spaniards,  however,  were  not  enriched  by  the  con- 
quest ;  since  their  commercial  energy  and  enterprise 
had  been  destroyed,  by  the  vast  quantities  of  the  pre- 
cious metals  obtained  from  their  American  posses- 
sions. 

43.  In  1579,  the  people  of  Holland,  with  those  of 
six  neighboring  provinces,  being  then  subject  to  Spam4 


THE     MERCHANT.  199 

united,  under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  for  the  purpose 
of  regaining  their  liberties.  This  produced  a  san- 
guinary war,  which  continued  for  thirty  years,  during 
which  time  the  Dutch  wrested  from  the  Spaniards 
most  of  their  Portuguese  possessions  in  India,  and,  in 
addition  to  this,  formed  many  other  settlements  in  va- 
rious places  from  the  River  Tigris  even  to  Japan. 
Batavia,  on  the  Island  of  Java,  was  made  the  grand 
emporium  of  trade,  and  the  seat  of  the  government 
of  their  East  India  possessions. 

44.  The  prosperity  of  the  United  Provinces  in- 
creased with  great  rapidity ;  and,  as  they  were  but 
little  interfered  with  by  other  nations  in  their  Eastern 
dominions,  they  enjoyed,  for  half  a  century  or  more, 
almost  the  whole  of  the  trade  of  the  East.     Besides 
this,  they  shared  largely  with  the  rest  of  the  world  in 
almost  every  other  branch  of  trade.     After  the  year 
1660,  other  nations,  by  great  exertions,  succeeded  in 
obtaining  considerable  shares  of  the  commerce  of  the 
East ;  yet  the  Dutch  still  retain  valuable  possessions 
there. 

45.  The  chief  articles  exported  from  Britain,  in 
ancient  times,  were  tin,  lead,  copper,  iron,  wool,  and 
cattle ;  for  which  they  received  in  return,  gold,  silver, 
and  manufactured  articles.     But   the   commerce  of 
the   British   Islands  was  inconsiderable,  when  com- 
pared with  that  of  many  kingdoms  on  the  Continent, 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

46.  When  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne  of  Eng- 
land, in  1558,  the  circumstances  of  the  nation  re- 
quired an  extensive  navy  for  its  protection  ;  and  the 
great  attention  which  the  queen  paid  to  this  means  of 
defence,  gave  animation   to  all   maritime  concerns. 
Under  her  patronage,  several  companies  for  trading 
in  foreign  countries  were  formed,  which,  at  that  time, 
and  for  a  long  period  afterwards,  were  very  beneficial 
to  trade  in  general.     In  her  reign,  also,  the  colonial 


200  THE     MERCHANT. 

system,  of  England  had  its  origin,  which  contributed 
eventually,  more  than  any  thing  else,  to  the  commer- 
cial prosperity  of  that  nation.  Since  the  reign  of 
this  wise  and  judicious  princess,  the  commerce  and 
manufactures  of  Great  Britain  have  been,  with  a  few 
interruptions,  steadily  advancing  ;  and,  in  these  two 
particulars,  she  surpasses  every  other  nation. 

47.  The  United  States  possess  superior  local  ad- 
vantages  for  trade,  and  embrace  a  population  unsur- 
passed for  enterprise  and  energy.     Since  the  Revo- 
lution, the  resources  of  our  country  have.been  rapid- 
ly developing.     Our  exports  and  imports  are  already 
next  in  amount  to  those  of  Great  Britain  and  France 
and   the  extensive  improvements  which   have   been 
made  by  the  different  states,  to  facilitate  internal  in- 
tercourse, are  increasing  with  great  rapidity. 

48.  The  banking  system  is  very  intimately  inter- 
woven with  commercial  affairs   in   general.     Banks 
are  of  three  kinds,  viz.,  of  discount,  of  deposit,  and 
of  circulation.     The  term  bank,  in  its  original  appli- 
cation, signified  a  place  of  common  deposit  for  money, 
and  where,  in  commercial  transactions,  individuals 
could  have  the  amount,  or  any  part  of  the  amount,  of 
their  deposits  transferred  to  each  other's  accounts. 

49.  The  term  bank  is  derived  from  the  Italian  word 
banco,  which  signified  a  kind  of  bench,  or  table,  on 
which  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to  place  the  money 
which  they  proposed  to  lend  in  the  markets  of  the  prin- 
cipal towns.     The  first  bank  was  established  in  Yen- 
ice,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  the  Bank 
of  Genoa,  in  1345  ;  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  in  1607  ; 
the  Bank  of  Hamburg,  in  1619  ;  the  Bank  of  Rotter- 
dam, in  1635.    These  were  all  banks  of  mere  deposit 
and  transfer. 

50.  Lending-houses  may  be  traced  to  a  very  an- 
cient origin.     They  were,  at  first,  supported  by  hu- 
mane persons,  with  a  view  of  lending  money  to  the 


THE     MERCHANT,  201 

poor,  on  pledges,  without  interest.  Augustus  Csesar 
appropriated  a  part  of  the  confiscated  effects  of  crim- 
inals  to  this  purpose ;  and  Tiberias,  also,  advanced  a 
large  capital,  to  be  lent  for  three  years,  without  in- 
terest, to  those  who  could  give  security  in  lands  equal 
to  twice  the  value  of  the  sum  borrowed. 

51.  In  the  early  ages   of  Christianity,  free   gifts 
were  collected  and  preserved  by  ecclesiastics,  partly 
co  defray  the  expenses  of  divine  service,  and  partly 
to  relieve  the  poor  of  the  church ;  and  the  funds  thus 
provided  came,  at  length,  to  be  called  mantes  pietatis 
— mountains  of  piety.     This  appellation  was  after- 
wards  applied  to  the   loaning-houses,  established  in 
modern  Italy  in  imitation  of  those  of  antiquity. 

52.  In  course   of  time,  the   loaning-houses   were 
permitted  by  the  Roman  pontiff  to  charge  a  moderate 
interest  on  a  part  of  their  capital,  and,  finally,  upon 
the  whole  of  it ;  still,  they  retained,  for  a  long  period, 
the  original   denomination  of  monies  pietatis.     The 
receiving  of  interest  on  loans  was  declared  lawful  by 
the  Pope,  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Soon  after  this  period,  all  the  cities  of  Italy  hastened 
to  establish  these  institutions  ;  and  their  example  was, 
at  length,  followed  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 

53.  But  long  before  the   Pope  had  granted   this 
privilege,  individuals   were  in  the  habit  of  loaning 
money  at  an  exorbitant  usury.     These  were  princi- 
pally Jews  and  merchants  from  Lombardy ;  hence, 
all  persons  in  those  countries,  who  dealt  in  money, 
came  to  be  called  Lombard  merchants.     The  prohibi- 
tions of  the  Church  against  receiving  interest  were 
eluded,  when  necessary,  by  causing  it  to  be  paid  in 
advance,  by  way  of  present  or  premium. 

54.  In  the  twelfth  century,  many  of  the  dealers  in 
money  were  expelled  from  England,  France,  and  the 
Netherlands,  for  usurious  practices  ;  and,  in  order  to 
regain  possession  of  their  effects,  which  they  had,  in 


202  THE     MERCHANT. 

their  haste,  left  in  the  hands  of  confidential  friends, 
they  adopted  the  method  of  writing  concise  orders  or 
drafts.  Hence  originated  bills  of  exchange,  so  con- 
venient in  commercial  transactions. 

55.  The  Bank  of  England  was  established  in  thu 
year  1694.     Hitherto,  the  banks  of  deposit,  and  loan- 
ing-houses,  were  entirely  distinct ;  but,  in  this  insti- 
tution, these  two  branches  of  pecuniary  operations 
were  united.     It  seems,  also,  that  this  was  the  first 
bank  that  issued  notes,  to  serve  as  a  medium  of  cir- 
culation, and  to  supply,  in  part,  the  place  of  gold  and 
silver. 

56.  In  the  United  States,  banking  institutions  are 
very  numerous.     They  are  all  established  by  com. 
panics,  incorporated  by  the  legislatures  of  the  differ- 
ent states,  or  by  the  congress  of  the  United  States. 
The  act  which  grants  the  privileges  of  banking,  also 
fixes  the  amount  of  the  capital  stock,  and  divides  it 
into  equal  shares.     The  holders  of  the  stock  choose 
the  officers  to  transact  the  business  of  the  corpora- 
tion. 

57.  Our  banks  receive  deposits  from  individual  cus- 
tomers, loan  money  on  notes  of  hand,  acceptances, 
and  drafts,  issue  notes  of  circulation,  and  purchase 
and  sell  bills  of  exchange.     They  are  usually  author- 
ized, by  their  charters,  to  loan  three  times  the  amount, 
and  to  issue  bank-notes  to  twice  the  amount,  of  the 
capital  stock  paid  in.     Few  banking  companies,  how. 
ever,  exercise  these  privileges  to  the  full  extent,  lest 
the  bank  be  embarrassed  by  too  great  a  demand  for 
specie.     As  soon  as  a  bank  ceases  to  pay  specie  for 
its  notes,  it  is  said  to  be  broken,  and  its  operations 
must  cease. 

58.  The  Bank  of  North  America  was  the  first  in- 
stitution of  this  kind,  established  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  incorporated  by  Congress,  in  1781,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Rahert  Morris.     In  1791,  after  the  union 


THE     MERCHANT.  203 

of  the  states  had  been  effected  under  the  present  con- 
stitution, the  first  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  in- 
corporated, with  a  capital  of  ten  millions  of  dollars. 
Most  of  the  states  soon  followed  this  example  ;  and, 
before  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  whole 
banking  eapital  amounted  to  near  thirty  millions  of 
dollars. 

59.  The  charter  of  the  first  Bank  of  the  United 
States  expired,  by  its  own  limitation,  in  1811 ;  and  a 
new  one,  with  a  capital  of  thirty-five  millions  of  dol- 
lars, was  established  in  1816,  which  also  closed  its 
concerns,  as  a  national  bank,  in  1836,  President  Jack- 
son having  vetoed  the  bill  for  its  recharter.  In  that 
year  the  number  of  banks  was  567,  and  the  bank  cap- 
ital 8251,875,292.  In  the  year  1840,  the  number 
of  banks  had  increased  to  722,  and  their  capital  to 
8358,442,692. 


THE    AUCTIONEER. 

1.  THE  Auctioneer  is  one  who  disposes  of  property 
at  public  sale  to  the  highest  bidder.     The  sale  of 
property  in  this  manner  is  regulated,  in  some  par. 
ticulars,  by  legislative  enactments,  which  have  for 
their  object  the  prevention  of  fraud,  or  the  imposi- 
tion of  duties. 

2.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  present  law  provides  for 
three  classes  of  auctioneers,  each  of  which  is  required 
to  pay  to  the  state  a  specified  sum  for  a  license.     The 
first  class  pays  two  thousand  dollars  per  annum  ;  the 
second,  one  thousand  ;  and  the  third,  two  hundred  ; 
and,  besides  this,  one  and  a   half  per  cent,  on  the 
amount  of  all  their  sales  is  required  to  be  paid  into 
the  treasury  of  the  state.     To  each  class  are  granted 
privileges  corresponding  to  the  cost  of  the  license. 


THE      AUCTIONEER.  205 

3.  In  the  state  of  New. York,  the  number  of  auc- 
tioneers for  the  cities,  villages,  and  counties,  is  limit- 
ed  by  law  ;  and  all   persons  who  would  follow  the 
business  are  compelled  to  give  security  for  the  faith- 
ful execution  of  its  duties.     The  state  requires  a  duty 
of  one  per  cent,  on  all  merchandise  imported  from 
beyond  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  one  arid  a  half  per 
cent,  on  such  as  may  be  imported  from  other  foreign 
countries,  and   two  per  cent,  on  wines  and  ardent 
spirits,  whether  foreign  or  domestic.     The  laws  and 
usages  regarding  sales  at  auction,  in  most  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  are  similar,  in  their  general  principles,  to 
those  of  Pennsylvania  or  New-York. 

4.  A  great  amount  of  merchandise,  both  foreign 
and  domestic,  in  our  principal  cities,  is  sold  by  auc- 
tion ;    and  the  price  which  staple  commodities  there 
command  is  generally  considered  a  tolerable  criterion 
of  their  value  at  the  time.     It  very  frequently  hap- 
pens, however,  that  articles  which  are  not  in  steady 
demand,  are  sold  at  a  great  sacrifice.     Auctioneers 
seldom  import  goods,  nor  is  it  usual  for  them  to  own 
the  property  which  they  sell. 

5.  In  all  cases,  before  an  auction  is  held,  due  no- 
tice is  given  to  the  public.     This  is  usually  done  by 
the  circulation  of  a  printed  hand-bill,  by  a  crier,  or 
by  an  advertisement  in  a  newspaper  ;  or  all  three  of 
these  modes  may  be  employed  to  give  publicity  to 
one  and  the  same  sale. 

6.  Persons  desirous  of  becoming  purchasers  at  the 
proposed   auction,  assemble  at   the   time  appointed ; 
and,  after  the  auctioneer  has  stated  the  terms  of  sale, 
as  regards  the  payment  of  whatever  may  be  purcha- 
sed, he  offers  the  property  to  the  persons  present,  who 
make  their  respective  bids,  he,  in  the  mean  time,  cry- 
ing the  sum  proposed.     When  no  further  advance  is 
expected,  he  knocks  down  the  article  to  the  last  bidder. 

7.  A  mode  of  sale  was  formerly,  and,  in  some 


206  THE     AUCTIONEER. 

cases  is  still,  practised,  in  various  parts  of  Europe, 
called  sale  by  inch  of  candle.  The  things  for  sale  are 
offered  in  the  ordinary  manner,  as  has  been  described 
in  the  preceding  paragraph,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a 
wax-candle,  an  inch  in  length,  is  lighted.  The  pur- 
chasers  bid  upon  each  other,  until  the  candle  has 
been  all  consumed ;  and  the  last  bidder,  when  the 
light  goes  out,  is  entitled  to  the  articles  or  goods  in 
question. 

8.  Auctioneers,  in  large  cities,  hold  thei'r  sales  at 
regular  periods ;  sometimes,  every  day  or  evening. 
On  extensive  sales  of  merchandise,  credits  of  two, 
three,  four,  six,  or  nine  months,  are  commonly  given. 
In  such  cases,  the  auctioneer  often  gives  his  own  ob- 
ligations for  the  goods,  and  receives  in  return  those 
of  the  purchasers. 

9.  This  mode  of  sale  is  employed  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  property   taken  by  process  of  law  for  the 
payment  of  debts,  in  every  part  of  the  world,  where 
the  influence  of  European  law  has  extended.     It  is 
used  in  preference  to  any  other;   because  it  is  the 
most  ready  way  of  sale,  and  is  moreover  the  most 
likely  method  to  secure  to  the  debtor  something  like 
the  value  of  his  property. 

10.  Executors   and  administrators  often   employ 
this  convenient  method  of  sale,  in  settling  the  estates 
of  deceased  persons  ;   and  they,  as  well  as  sheriffs 
and  constables,  ex-officio,  or  by  virtue  of  their  office, 
have  a  lawful  right  to  act  in  the  capacity  of  auction- 
eer, in  performing  their  respective  duties  ;  and  no  tax 
is  required  by  the  state,  in  such  cases. 

11.  The  sale  by  auction  was  in  use  among  the  Ro- 
mans, even  in  the  early  days  of  their  city.     It  was 
first  employed  in  the  disposition  of  spoils  taken  in 
war  ;   hence  a  spear  was  adopted  as  a  signal  of  a 
public  sale ;  and  this  continued  to  be  the  auctioneer's 
emblem,  even  after  this  mode  of  sale  was  extended 


THE     AUCTIONEER.  207 

to  property  in  general.  The  red  flag  and  spear,  or 
rather  the  handle  of  that  instrument,  both  emblematc 
ical  of  blood  and  war,  are  s;lil  employed  for  the  same 
purpose. 

12.  Several  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  to  suppress  sales  of  merchandise  by  auc- 
tion ;  but  these  endeavors  were  unsuccessful,  since 
experience  had  proved  this  mode  of  effecting  ex- 
changes to  be  prompt  and  convenient ;  and  since 
some  of  the  states  had  derived  consideiable  revenue 
from  the  duties.  So  long  as  conflicting  interests  re- 
main as  they  are,  this  mode  of  sale  will  be  likely  to 
continue. 


THE    CLERGYMAN. 

1.  THE  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  our  Saviour,  during  his 
visit  of  mercy  to  the  world,  chose  from  among  his 
disciples  twelve  men,  to  be  his  especial  agents  in  es. 
tablishing  his  church.     These  men,  in  our  translation 
of  the  New  Testament,  are   denominated  apostles. 
The  grand  commission  which  they  received  was,  "Go 
ye  into  all  the  world,  and  preach  my  gospel  to  every 
creature." 

2.  The  apostles  commenced  their  noble  enterprise 
on  that  memorable  day  of  Pentecost,  which  next  oc- 
curred after  the  ascension  of  their  Master ;  and,  in 
the  city  of  his  inveterate  enemies,  soon  succeeded  in 
establishing  a  church  of  several  thousand  members. 
The  doctrines  of  Christianity  soon  spread  to  other 
cities  and  countries ;   and,  before  the  close  of  thai 


THE     CLERGYMAN.  209 

century,  they  were  known  and  embraced,  more  or 
less,  in  every  province  of  the  Roman  empire. 

3.  The  apostles,  however,  were  not  the  only  agents 
engaged  in  spreading  and  maintaining  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity ;  for,  in  every  church,  persons  were 
found  capable  of  taking  the  supervision  of  the  rest, 
and  of  exercising  the  office  of  the  ministry.     These 
were  ordained  either  by  the  apostles  themselves,  or 
by  persons  authorized  by  them  to  perform  the  cere- 
mony. 

4.  After  the  Church  had  passed  through  a  great 
variety  of  persecutions,  during  a  period  of  nearly 
three  centuries,  the  Christians  became  superior  in 
numbers  to  the  pagans  in  the  Roman  empire.     In 
the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century,  a  free  toleration 
in  religious  matters  was  declared  by  Constantino  the 
Great,  who  took  the  Church  under  his  especial  pro. 
tection. 

5.  The  Christians  of  the  first  and  second  centurio? 
usually  worshipped  God  in  private  houses,  or  in  the 
open  air  in  retired  places,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
persecutions  to  which  they  were  often  subjected.     It 
was  not  until  the  third  century,  that  they  ventured  to 
give  greater  publicity  to  their  service,  by  building 
churches   for  general   accommodation.      When  the 
Cross  had  obtained  the  ascendency,  in  the  subsequent 
age,  many  of  the  heathen  temples  were  appropriated 
to  Christian  purposes ;  and  many  splendid  churches 
were  erected,  especially  by  Constantino  and  his  sue. 
cessors. 

6.  In  the  middle  ages,  a  great  number  of  edifices 
were  erected  for  the  performance  of  divine  worship, 
which,  in  loftiness  and  grandeur,  had  never  been  sur- 
passed ;  and  the  greater  part  of  these  remain  to  the 
present  day.     Some  of  the  most  famous  churches  are, 
St.  Peter's,  at  Rome;   Notre  Dame,  at  Paris;   St. 
Stephen's,  at  Vienna ;  the  church  of  Isaac,  at  St.  Pe- 

R 


210  THE      CLERGYMAN. 

tersburg  ;    the  minsters  at  Strasburg  and  Cologne  • 
and  St.  Paul's,  in  London. 

7.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  great  change  in  favor  of 
Christianity,  just  mentioned,  the  whole  Church  had 
often  acted  together  in  matters  of  common  interest, 
through  the  medium  of  general  councils;    and  this 
practice  continued  for  several  centuries  afterwards. 
But  the  variance  and  dissensions  between  the  Pope  of 
Rome,  and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  combined 
with  some  other  causes,  produced,  about  the  close  of 
the  ninth  century,  a  total  separation  of  the  two  great 
divisions  of  the  Church. 

8.  At  the  time  of  this  schism,  the  whole  Christian 
world  had  become  subject  to  these  two  prelates.     The 
part  of  the  Church  ruled  by  the  Patriarch,  was  called 
the  Eastern,  or  Greek  Church ;  and  that  part  which 
yielded  obedience  to  the  Pope,  was  denominated  the 
Western,  or  Latin  Church.    Many  attempts  have  been 
since   made  to   reunite  these    two    branches  of  the 
Church  ;   but  these  endeavors  have  hitherto  proved 
unsuccessful. 

9.  The  conquest  of  the  Roman  empire,  so  often 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  pages,  was  particularly 
injurious  to  the  Church,  especially  that  part  of  it  sub- 
ject to  the  Roman  pontiff;  since  it  nearly  extinguish- 
ed the  arts  and  sciences,  and  since  the  barbarous  con- 
querors were  received  into  the  Church,  before  they 
had  attained  the  proper  moral  qualifications.     From 
these  causes,  chiefly,  arose  the  conduct  of  the  Church, ' 
in  the  middle  ages,  which  has  been  so  much  censured 
by  all  enlightened  men,  and  which  has  been  often  un- 
justly attributed  to  Christianity  herself,  rather  than  to 
the  ignorance  and  barbarism  of  the  limes. 

10.  In  the  year  1517,  while  Leo  X.  occupied  the 
papal  chair,  Martin  Luther,  of  Saxony,  commenced 
his  well-known  opposition  to  many  practices  and  doc. 
frines  in  -the  Church,  which  he  conceived  to  be  de« 


THE      CLERGYMAN.  211 

partures  from  the  spirit  of  primitive  Christianity.  He 
was  soon  joined  in  his  opposition  by  Philip  Melanc- 
thon,  Ulric  Zuingle,  and  finally  by  John  Calvin,  as 
well  as  by  many  other  distinguished  divines  of  that 
century,  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 

11.  These  men,  with  their  followers  and  abettors, 
for  reasons  too  obvious  to  need  explanation,  received 
or  assumed  the  appellation  of  Reformers  ;  and,  on  ac- 
count of  a  solemn  protest  which  they  entered  against 
a  certain  decree  which  had  been  issued  against  them, 
they  also  became  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Prot- 
estants.    The  latter  term  is  now  applied  to  all  sects, 
of  whatever  denomination,  in  the  western  division  of 
the  Church,  that  do  not  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  Roman  See. 

12.  The  Protestant  division  of  the  Church  is  called 
by  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  Western  schism,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  that  of  the  Greek  Church,  which  is 
termed  the  Eastern  schism.     The  Protestants  are  di- 
vided into  a  great  number  of  sects,  or  parties  ;  and, 
although  they  differ  from  each  other  in  many  of  their 
religious  sentiments,  they  agree  in  their  steady  oppo- 
sition to  the  Roman  Catholics. 

13.  The  ostensible  object  of  the  founders  of  all  the 
churches  differing  from  the  Romish  communion,  has 
been,  to  bring  back  Christianity  to  the  state  in  which 
it  existed  on  its  first  establishment ;  and  to  prove  their 
positions  in  doctrine  and  church  government,  they  ap- 
peal to  the  Scriptures,  and  sometimes  to  the  Christian 
writers  of  the  first  four  or  five  centuries.     The  advo- 
cates of  the  "  mother  church,"  on  the  contrary,  con- 
tend  that,  being  infallible,  she  can  never  have  depart- 
ed  from  primitive  principles,  on  any  point  essential  to 
salvation. 

14.  As  to  the  government  of  the  several  churches 
it  is,  in  most  cases,  either  Episcopal  or  Presbyterian 
In  the  former  case,  three  orders  of  clergymen  are  ie- 


212  THE      CLERGYMAN. 

cognized  ;  viz.,  bishops,  presbyters,  and  deacons  ;  and 
these  three  orders  are  supposed,  by  the  advocates  of 
episcopacy,  to  have  been  ordained  by  the  apostles 
This  opinion  is  supported  by  the  circumstance,  that 
these  orders  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  ;  and 
also  by  the  fact,  supposed  to  be  sustained  by  the  prim- 
itive fathers,  that  they  were  uniformly  established  ear- 
ly  in  the  second  century. 

15.  It  is  believed  by  Episcopalians,  that  these  three 
orders  of  ministers  were  instituted  in  the  Christian 
Church,  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  priesthood ;  the 
bishop  representing  the  high-priest ;   the  presbyters, 
the  priests  ;  and  the  deacons,  the  Levites. 

16.  On  the  other  hand,  the  advocates  of  the  Pres- 
byterian form  of  government,  assert,  that  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Church,  bishop  and  presbyter  were  the 
same   order  of  ministers,   and  that  the  former  was 
nothing   more   than    a   presbyter,   who    presided   in 
Christian  assemblies,  when  met  to  consult  on  church 
affairs. 

17.  The  deacons  in  the  churches  that  have   re- 
nounced  episcopacy,  are  not  classed  among  the  cler- 
gy, but  are  chosen  from  among  the  private  members, 
to  manage  the  temporalities  of  the  congregation,  or 
church,  to  which  they  belong,  to  assist  the  minister, 
on  some  occasions,  in  religious  assemblies,  or  to  take 
the  lead  in  -religious  worship  in  his  absence.     Under 
this  form  of  government,  therefore,  there  is  recogni- 
zed but  one  order  of  ministers,  and  every  clergyman 
is  denominated  presbyter,  priest,  or  elder. 

18.  The   literary  and  religious  qualifications   re- 
quired of  candidates  for  orders  have  varied  in  differ- 
ent ages  of  the  Church,  according  to  the  existing  state 
of  literature  and  religion  ;  and  the  requirements  in 
these  two  particulars  are  now  different,  in  the  several 
denominations.     Nearly  all,  however,  require  the  pro- 
fession in  the  candidate,  that  he  believes  he  is  moved 


THE     CLERGYMAN.  213 

by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  take  upon  him  the  office  of  the 
ministry.  Some  churches  require  a  collegiate  educa- 
tion, with  two  or  three  years  of  the  study  of  divinity  ; 
but  others,  only  such  as  is  usually  obtained  in  com- 
mon  schools,  combined  with  a  tolerable  capacity  for 
public  speaking. 

19.  The  clergy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is 
of  two  kinds  ;  the  one  regular,  comprehending  all  the 
religious  who  have  taken  upon  themselves  monastic 
vows  ;  the  other  secular,  comprehending  all  the  eccle- 
siastics who  do  not  assume  these  obligations.     The 
Jatter,  however,  in  common  with  the  former,  take  a 
vow  of  perpetual  celibacy. 

20.  It  is  the  especial  duty  of  clergymen,  to  preach 
the  gospel,  to  administer  the  ordinances,  and  to  en- 
force the  discipline  of  that  branch  of  the  Church  to 
which  they  belong.     They  are  also  expected  to  ad- 
minister consolation  to  persons  in  distress  of  n,md, 
arising  from  the  complicated  evils  of  this  life,  to  unite 
persons  by  the  bonds  of  matrimony,  and,  finally,  in 
attending  on  the  burial  of  the  dead,  to  perform  the 
last  ceremony  due  from  man  to  man. 

21.  Ministers  of  the  gospel  occupy   an  elevated 
stand  in  all  Christian  communities,  both  on  account 
of  the  high  tone  of  moral  feeling  which  they  gener- 
ally possess,  and  on  account  of  the  interest  which  the 
people  at  large  feel  in  the  subject  of  religion.     The 
work  of  the  ministry  is  emphatically  a  work  of  be- 
nevolence ;  and  no  man  can  perform  it  with  satisfac- 
tion to  himself,  or  with  acceptance  to  the  people  of 
his  charge,  if  destitute  of  love  to  God  and  man. 

22.  In  most  of  the  kingdoms  of  Europe,  some  one 
of  the  several  denominations  is  supported  by  legal 
enactments ;  but,  in  the  United  States,  every  branch 
of  the  Church  enjoys  equal  favor,  so  far  as  legislation 
is  concerned.     In  most  cases,  the  institutions  of  reli- 
gion are  supported  by  voluntary  contributions  or  sub. 
scriptions. 


214  THE     CLERGYMAN. 

23.  The  salary  received  by  ministers  of  the  gos. 
pel,  in  the  United  States,  is  exceedingly  various  in 
the  different  denominations,  and  in  the  same  denomi- 
nation  from   different  congregations.     In  some  in- 
stances,  they  receive  nothing  for  their  services,  in 
others,  a  liberal  compensation. 

24.  It  is  but  justice  to  this  profession  to  remark, 
that,  taking  the  ability  of  its  members  into  account, 
there  is  no  employment  less  productive  of  wealth ; 
and  this  is  so  evidently  the  case,  that  some  denomi- 
nations  distribute,   annually,  a  considerable  amount 
among  the  widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  have 
devoted  their  lives  to  the  ministry. 

25.  The  meagre  support  which  the  ministry  usu- 
ally receives,  arises,  in  part,  from   the   opinion   too 
commonly  entertained,  that  this  profession  ought  to 
be  one  of  benevolence  exclusively,  and  that  ministers 
should,  therefore,  be  contented  with  a  bare  subsist- 
ence, and  look  for  their  reward  in  the  consciousness 
of  doing  their  duty,  and  in  the  prospect  of  future  fe- 
licity.    This  is  a  very  convenient  way  of  paying  for 
the  services  of  faithful  servants,  and  of  relieving  the 
consciences  of  those  whose  duty  it  is  to  give  them  a 
liberal  support. 


ATTORNEY   AT    LAW. 

1.  A  LAWYER  is  one  who,  by  profession,  transacts 
egal  business  for  others,  who,  in  this  relation,  are 
called  clients.  A  lawyer  is  either  an  attorney  or 
councillor,  or  both.  The  part  of  legal  business,  be- 
longing peculiarly  to  the  attorney,  consists  in  prepa- 
ring the  details  of  the  pleadings  and  the  briefs  for  the 
use  of  the  councillor,  whose  especial  province  it  is  to 
make  the  argument  before  the  court.  When  the 
lawyer  prepares  his  own  case  and  makes  the  argu- 
ment, as  he  generally  does,  he  acts  in  the  capacity  of 
both  attorney  and  councillor.  In  the  court  of  chan- 
cery the  lawyer  is  denominated  solicitor,  and  in  the 
admiralty  court,  proctor.  Before  a  person  is  permit- 
ted to  practise  law  in  our  courts,  he  is  required  to 
pass  through  a  regular  course  of  study,  and  after- 


216  ATTORNEY    AT    LAW. 

wards  undergo  an  examination;  before  persons  learned 
in  the  law. 

2.  This  profession  has  its  foundation  in  the  numer- 
ous and  complicated  laws  which  have  been  adopted 
by  men,  to  govern  their  intercourse  with  each  other. 
These  laws,  as  they  exist  in  our  country,  may  be  di- 
vided into  constitutional  and  municipal.   Constitutional 
law  is  that  by  which  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  those  of  the  different  states,  have  been 
established,  and  by  which  they  are  governed  in  their 
action.     The  Constitution  of  the  United  States  is  the 
supreme  law  of  the  land. 

3.  Municipal  law  embraces  those  rules   of  civil 
conduct  prescribed  by  the  supreme  power  of  the  state, 
or  of  the  United  States ;  and  is  composed  of  statute  and 
common  law.     Statute  law  is  the  express  will  of  the 
legislative  part  of  the  government,  rendered  authentic 
by  certain  forms  and  ceremonies  prescribed  by  the 
Constitution. 

4.  Common  law  is  a  system  of  rules  and  usages, 
which  have  been  applied  in  particular  cases  of  litiga- 
tion.    It  originated  in  the  dictates  of  natural  justice, 
and  cultivated  reason,  and  is  found  more  particularly 
in  the  reports  of  the  decisions  of  the  courts  of  jus. 
tice.     The  common  law  is  employed  in  cases  which 
positive  enactments  do  not  reach,  and  in  construing 
and  applying  positive  enactments.    The  common  law 
of  England  has  been  adopted  by  every  state  in  the 
Union,  except  Louisiana. 

5.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  those 
of  the  several  states,  provides  for  three  departments 
in  their  respective  governments,  viz.,  the  legislative, 
the  executive,  and  the  judicial.     It  is  the  chief  prov- 
ince of  the  first  to  enact  laws,  and  of  the  second  and 
third  to  see  that  they  are  duly  executed. 

6.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  is  vest- 
ed in  one  supreme  court  and  two  inferior  courts.   The 


ATTORNEY    AT    LAW.  217 

Supreme  Court  is  now  composed  of  seven  justices 
who  commence  their  session  in  the  Capitol,  at  Wash- 
ington, on  the  second  Monday  in  January.  The  two 
inferior  courts  are  the  District  and  Circuit  Courts.  In 
the  first  of  these  presides  a  single  judge ;  in  the  sec- 
ond, one  of  the  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and 
the  district  judge. 

7.  The  judiciary  of  the  United  States  takes  cogni- 
sance of  all  cases  which  arise  under  the  Constitution, 
laws,  and  treaties,  of  the  United  States,  and  likewise 
of  those  cases  arising  under  the  law  of  nations.     It 
also  embraces  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime 
jurisdiction,  as  well  as  those  controversies  to  which 
the  government  of  the  United  States  is  a  party,  the 
controversies  between  two  states,  between  a  state  and 
citizens  of  another  state,  between  citizens  of  differ- 
ent states,  and  between  a  state  or  citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

8.  The  judicial  systems  of  all  the  states  corre- 
spond, in  many  respects,  with  each  other.    In  all,  the 
office  of  justice  of  the  peace  is  similar.     To  these 
magistrates,  the  general  police  of  the  Counties  is 
chiefly  committed,  as  they  have  authority  to  cause 
criminals,  and  other  disturbers  of  the  peace,  to  be  ar- 
rested ;  and,  if  the  offence  is  small,  to  fix  the  penal- 
ty ;  but,  if  the  offence  is  too  great  to  be  brought 
within  their  jurisdiction,  they  commit  the  offenders 
to  prison,  to  be  reserved  for  trial  before  a  higher 
tribunal. 

9.  In  many  of  the  states,  the  common  magistrates 
of  the  county,  or  a  select  number  of  them,  form  a 
court,  called  County  Sessions,  which  has  a  compre- 
hensive jurisdiction  in  matters  of  police,  and  in  regu- 
lating the  affairs  of  the  county;   such  as  building 
courthouses,  assessing  county  taxes,  opening  roads, 
and  licensing  taverns. 

10.  In  Virginia,  the  County  Sessions  is  an  impoi- 


218  ATTORNEY     AT     LAW. 

tant  court.  Its  jurisdiction  extends  to  many  criminal 
cases,  and  to  those  of  a  civil  nature  involving  the 
amount  of  $300.  Although  a  great  amount  of  busi. 
ness  passes  through  these  courts,  the  justices  discharge 
all  their  duties  without  compensation.  In  most  of 
the  states,  the  common  magistrates,  in  their  individ- 
ual or  collective  capacity,  have  jurisdiction  over  civil 
cases,  varying  in  their  greatest  amount  from  thirteen 
to  one  hundred  dollars,  a  right  of  appeal  being  re- 
served to  a  higher  court. 

11.  No  definite  qualifications  are  required  by  law 
or  usage  for  practising  in  the  magistrates'  courts , 
accordingly,  there  are  many  persons  who  plead  causes 
here,  who  do  not  properly  belong  to  the  profession  of 
law ;  these  are  called  pettifoggers,  and  the  practice 
itself,  by  whomsoever  performed,  is  called  pettifogging. 
Lawyers  of  inferior  abilities  and  acquirements  are, 
also,  frequently  termed  pettifoggers. 

12.  In  all  the  states,  a  class  of  county  courts  is  estab- 
lished, denominated  Courts  of  Common  Pleas,  County 
Courts,  District  or  Circuit  Courts,  which  have  origi- 
nal jurisdiction  of  civil  actions  at  law,  or  indictments 
for  crimes.     Over  these  are  established  the  Superior 
or  Supreme  Courts,  or  Courts  of  Error  and  Appeal,  to 
which  appeals  are  admitted  from  the  inferior  courts. 

13.  Civil  cases  are  frequently  decided  on  princi- 
ples of  equity ;  and,  in  some  states,  courts  of  chan- 
cery are  established  for  this  purpose.     But,  in  most 
of  the  states,  there  are  no  decisions  of  this  kind ;  or 
the  same  courts  act  as  courts  of  law  and  equity,  as  is 
the  case  with  the  courts  of  the  United  States. 

14.  There  are  several  other  courts  that  might  be 
mentioned  ;  but  enough  has  been  said  of  these  insti- 
tutions, to  give  an  idea  of  the  extensive  range  of  the 
profession  of  the  law.    It  may  be  well  to  remark  here, 
that  few  lawyers  aspire  to  the  privilege  of  practising 
in  the  supreme  courts  ;  since,  to  be  successful  there 


ATTORNEY     AT     LAW.  219 

it  would  require  not  only  great  abilities,  but  more  ex. 
tensive  reading  than  the  profession  generally  are  will- 
ing to  encounter. 

15.  When  a  client  has  stated  his  case  in  detail  to 
his  attorney,  it  is  the  province  of  the  latter  to  decide 
upon  the  course  most  proper  to  be  pursued  in  regard 
to  it.     If  the  client  is  the  plaintiff,  and  litigation  is 
determined  upon,  the  attorney  decides  upon  the  court 
in  which  the  case  should  be  brought  forward,  and  also 
upon  the  manner  in  which  it  should  be  conducted. 

16.  The  suit  having  been  brought,  say  into  the 
County  Court,  it  is  tried  according  to  law.     If  it  in- 
volves facts  or  damages,  it  is  canvassed  before  a  jury 
of  twelve  men,  who  are  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation 
to  bring  in  their  verdict  according  to  the  evidence 
presented  by  both  parties.     It  is  the  business  of  the 
lawyers,  each  for  his  own  client,  to  sum  up  the  evi- 
dence which  may  have  been  adduced,  and  to  present 
the  whole  in  a  light  as  favorable  to  his  own  side  of 
the  question  as  possible. 

17.  When  the  case  involves  points  of  law  which 
must  needs  be  understood  by  the  jury,  to  enable  them 
to  make  a  correct  decision,  the  advocates  of  the  par- 
ties  present  their  views  with  regard  to  them ;  but,  if 
these  happen  to  be  wrong,  the  judge,  in  his  charge  to 
the  jury,  rectifies  the  mistake  or  misrepresentation. 
The  case  having  been  decided,  each  party  is  bound 
to  submit  to  the  decision,  or  appeal,  if  permitted  by 
law,  to  a  higher  tribunal. 

18.  Causes  to  be  determined  on  legal  principles 
only,  are  brought  before  the  judge  or  judges  for  adju- 
dication.    In  such  cases,  the  advocates  present  the 
statute  or  common  law  supposed  to  be  applicable,  and 
then  reports  of  similar  cases,  which  may  have  been 
formerly  decided    in    the   same    or    similar   courts. 
These  reports  are  the  exponents  of  the  common  law 
of  the  case,  and  are  supposed,  in  most  instances,  to 
furnish  data  for  correct  decisions. 


220  ATTORNEY     AT     LAW. 

10.  Besides  the  management  of  causes  in  public 
courts,  the  lawyer  has  a  great  mass  of  business  of  a 
private  nature  ;  such  as  drawing  wills,  indentures, 
deeds,  and  mortgages.  He  is  consulted  in  a  great 
variety  of  cases  of  a  legal  nature,  where  litigation  is 
not  immediately  concerned,  and  especially  in  regard 
to  the  validity  of  titles  to  real  estate  ;  and  the  many 
impositions  to  which  the  community  is  liable  from  de- 
fective titles,  render  the  information  which  he  is  able 
to  afford  on  this  subject,  extremely  valuable. 

20.  In  the  preceding  account  of  this  profession,  it 
is  easy  to  perceive  that  it  is  one  of  great  utility  and 
responsibility.  It  is  to  the  attorney,  that  the  oppress- 
ed  repair  for  redress  against  the  oppressor ;  and  to 
him,  the  orphan  and  friendless  look,  to  aid  them  in 
obtaining  or  maintaining  their  rights.  To  this  pro- 
fession, also,  as  much  as  to  any  other,  the  American 
people  may  confidently  look  for  the  maintenance  of 
correct  political  principles. 


THE    PHYSICIAN. 

1.  AMONG  the  various  avocations  of  men,  that  of 
the  physician  deserves  to  be  placed  in  the  foremost 
rank.     The  profession  is  founded  in  the  multiplicity 
of  diseases  to  which  humanity  is  liable,  and  in  the 
medical  qualities  of  certain  substances,  which  have 
been  found  to  supply  a  remedy. 

2.  It  is  implied,  though  not  expressly  declared,  in 
the  Scriptures,  that  the  diseases  and  other  calamities 
pertaining  to  our  earthly  condition,  originated  in  the 
fall  of  man  from  his  pristine  innocence  ;  and  the  Gre- 
cian fable  of  Pandora's  box  appears  to  have  origina- 
ted  in  a  similar  tradition.     It  seems  that  Jupiter,  being 
angry  at  Prometheus,  ordered  Vulcan  to  make  a  wo- 
man endowed  with  every  possible  perfection.     This 
workman  having  finished  his  task,  and  presented  the 


222  THE      PHYSICIAN. 

workmanship  of  his  hands  to  the  gods,  they  loaded 
her  with  presents,  and  sent  her  to  Prometheus. 

3.  This  prince,  however,  suspecting  a  trick,  would 
have  nothing  to  do  with  her  ;  but  Epimetheus  was  so 
captivated  with  her  charms,  that  he  took  her  to  be  his 
wife.     The  curiosity  of  Epimetheus  led  him  to  look 
into  a  box,  given  to  her  by  Jupiter,  which  he  had  no 
sooner  opened,  than  there  issued  from  it  the  compli- 
cated miseries  and  diseases,  which  have  since  afflict- 
ed the  family  of  man.     He  instantly  shut  the  box  ; 
but  all  had  flown,  save  Hope,  which  had  not  time  to 
escape  ;   and  this  is  consequently  the  only  blessing 
that  permanently  remains  with  wretched  mortals. 

4.  Since  the   introduction  of  moral  evil  into  the 
world,  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  man  has  ever  en- 
joyed  the  blessing  of  uninterrupted  health ;  and,  as  it 
is  an  instinct  of  our  nature  to  seek  for  means  of  re- 
lieving pain,  we  may  safely  infer  that  medicinal  rem- 
edies were  applied  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  human 
race. 

5.  Among  some  of  the  ancient  nations,  the  origin 
of  diseases  was  attributed  to  the  malignant  influence 
of  supernatural  agents.     This  notion  produced  a  cor. 
responding  absurdity,  in  the  means  of  obtaining  re- 
lief.    Accordingly,  idolatrous  priests,  astrologers,  and 
magicians,  were  resorted  to,  who  employed  religious 
ceremonies,  astrological  calculations,  and   cabalistic 
incantations. 

6.  The  healing  art  was  cultivated  at  a  very  early 
period  in  Egypt ;  but  it  was  crippled  in  its  infancy 
by  ordinances,  enjoining,  without  discrimination,  the 
remedies  for  every  disease,  and  the  precise  time  and 
mode  of  their  application.     The  practice  was  confined 
to  the  priests,  who  connected  with  it  the  grossest  su- 
perstitions. 

7.  We  are  informed  by  the  most  ancient  historians, 
that  the  Chaldeans  and  Babylonians  exposed  their  sick 


THE      PHYSICIAN.  223 

in  places  of  public  resort,  and  on  the  highways  ;  and 
that  strangers  and  others  were  required  by  law  to 
give  some  advice  in  each  case  of  disease.  Amid  the 
variety  of  suggestions  which  must  necessarily  have 
been  given  under  such  circumstances,  it  was  expect- 
ed  that  some  would  prove  efficacious.  This  custom 
was^well  calculated  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  med- 
ical knowledge. 

8.  The  first  records  of  medicine  were  kept  in  the 
temples  dedicated  by  the  Greeks  to  Esculapius,  who, 
on  account  of  his  skill  in  medicine,  was  honored  as 
the  god  of  health.     The  name  or  description  of  the 
disease,  and  the  method  of  cure,  were  engraved  on 
durable  tablets,  which  were  suspended,  where  they 
could  be  readily  seen  by  visitors. 

9.  But  medicine  did  not  'assume  the  dignity  of  a 
distinct  science,  until  the  days  of  Hippocrates,  who 
reckons  himself  the  seventeenth  from  Esculapius  in 
a  lineal  descent.     This  great  man,  who   flourished 
about  400  years  before  the  Christian  era,  is  universally 
esteemed  the  " Father  of  Medicine."     After  his  death, 
the   science  was    cultivated  by  the  philosophers  of 
Greece,  to  whom,  however,  it  owes  but  few  improve- 
ments. 

10.  After  the  dismemberment  of  the  Macedonian 
empire,  learning  retreated  from  contending  factions 
to  Egypt,  where  it  was  liberally  fostered  by  the  Ptol- 
emies.    Under  their  patronage,  a  medical  school  at 
Alexandria  became  eminent,  and  the  healing  art  flour- 
ished beyond  all  former  example.     To  the  disciples 
of  this  school,  is  the  world  indebted  for  the  first  cor- 
rect description  of  the  human  structure.    Their  knowl- 
edge  on  this  subject  was  obtained  from  the  dissection 
of  the  bodies  of  criminals,  which  had  been  assigned 
to  them  by  the  government. 

11.  The  acquisitions  of  the  Greeks   in  medical 
science  at  length  became  the  inheritance  of  the  Ro- 


224  THE     PHYSICIAN. 

mans ;  but  Rome  had  existed  535  years  before  a  pro. 
fessional  physician  was  known  in  the  city.  This  in- 
attention to  the  subject  of  medicine  arose,  chiefly,  from 
an  opinion,  common  to  the  semi-barbarous  nations  of 
those  times,  that  maladies  were  to  be  cured  by  the 
interposition  of  superior  beings.  The  sick,  therefore, 
applied  to  their  idolatrous  priests,  who  offered  sacri- 
fices  to  the  gods  in  their  behalf,  and  practised  over 
the  body  of  the  patient  a  variety  of  magical  cei'emo. 
nies. 

12.  Sacrifices  were  especially  offered  to  the  gods 
in  cases  of  pestilence ;  and,  on  one  occasion  of  this 
kind,  a  temple  was  erected  to  Apollo,  who  was  re- 
garded as  the  god  of  physic  ;  and,  on  another,  Escu- 
lapius,  under  the  form  of  a  serpent,  was  conducted 
from  Epidaurus,  in  Greece,  and  introduced,  with  great 
pomp,  upon  an  islet  in  the  Tiber,  which  was  thence- 
forth  devoted  to  his  particular  service. 

13.  Archagathus,  a  Greek,  was  the  first  who  prac- 
tised physic,  as  an  art,  at  Rome ;  and  he  was  soon 
followed  by  many  more  of  his  professional  brethren. 
These  pioneers  of  medicine,  however,  were  violently 
opposed  by  Cato  the  Censor,  who  publicly  charged 
them  with  a  conspiracy  to  poison  the  citizens.     But 
the  patients  under  their  care  generally  recovering,  he 
began  to  regard  them  as  impious  sorcerers,  who  coun- 
teracted  the  course  of  nature,  and  restored  men  to 
life  by  means  of  unholy  charms. 

14.  Cato  having  succeeded  in  producing  a  general 
conviction,  that  the  practice  of  these  physicians  was 
calculated  to  enervate  the  constitutions,  and  corrupt 
the  manners  of  the  people,  restrictions  were  laid  upon 
the  profession,  and  practitioners  were  even  forbidden 
to  settle  at  Rome.     But  after  the  people  had  become 
more  vicious  and  luxurious,  diseases  became  more 
frequent  and  obstinate,  and  physicians  more  necessa- 
ry.    The  restrictions  were,  therefore,  at  length  re- 
moved. 


THE     PHYSICIAN.  225 

15.  Among  the  Roman  writers  on  medicine,  Cel- 
sus  was    the  first   who  is  worthy  of  consideration. 
He   has  been  denominated  the  Roman  Hippocrates, 
because  he  imita'ed  the  close  observation  and  practice 
of  that  physician.     His  work,  as  well  as  that  of  his 
great  prototype,  is  read  with  advantage,  even  at  the 
present  day.     He  flourished  at  or  near  the  time  of 
our  Saviour. 

16.  In  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Ga- 
len, a  Greek  physician  from  Pergamus,  and  a  disciple 
of  the  Alexandrian  school,  settled  in  Rome.     He  was 
learned  in  all  branches  of  medicine,  and  wrote  more 
copiously  on  the  subject  generally,  than  any  other 
person   amongst  the  ancients.     For  1300  years,  his 
opinions  were  received  as  oracular,  wherever  medi- 
cine was  cultivated. 

17.  After  the  destruction  of  the  Western  empire 
by  the  barbarous  nations,  the  science  of  medicine  was 
cultivated  only  in  the  Greek  empire,  and  chiefly  at 
Alexandria,  until  it  began  to  arrest  the  attention  of 
the  Arabians,  in  the  seventh   century.     The  works 
of  several  Greek  philosophers  and  physicians  were 
translated  into  Arabic,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
caliphs,  several  of  whom  were  zealous  promoters  of 
learning. 

18.  In  the  eighth  century,  the  Caliph'  Almansur 
established,  at  Bagdad,  a  hospital  for  the  sick,  and 
an   academy,   in  which,  among   other  branches   of 
knowledge,  was  taught  the  medical  art.     But  it  was 
in   Spain,  that   Arabian  learning  rose  to  the   high- 
est  point,  and  produced  the  most  successful  results. 
The  University  of  Cordova  became  the  most  celebra- 
ted in  the  world,  and  continued  to  maintain  its  repu- 
tation for  a  long  series  of  years.     Arabian  medicine 
reached  its  greatest  eminence,  in  the  eleventh  centu- 
ry, under  Avicenna. 

19.  In  the  tenth  century,  this  science  began  to  be 


226  THE      PHYSICIAN. 

taught  in  the  schools  of  other  parts  of  Europe  ;  but 
its  professors  derived  their  knowledge  of  the  subject 
from  the  Arabian  school,  or  from  Arabic  translations 
of  the  ancient  authors ;  and  this  continued  to  be  the 
case,  until  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  by  the 
Turks,  in  1453.  At  this  time,  many  erudite  Greeks 
fled  into  Italy,  and  carried  with  them  the  ancient 
writings. 

20.  Before  the  general  revival  of  this  science  in 
Europe,  the  cure  of  diseases  was  chiefly  confided,  in 
the.  western  nations,  to  the  priests  and  monks,  who, 
however,  generally  relied  more  upon  religious  cere- 
monies,  and  the  influence  of  sacrejd  relics,  than  upon 
the  application  of  medical  remedies.     The  supersti- 
tions of  those  barbarous  times,  respecting  the  means 
of  curing  diseases,  have  not  yet  entirely  disappear- 
ed, even  from  the  most  enlightened  nations  of  Chris- 
tendom. 

21.  The   science  of  chemistry   began   to    attract 
much  attention  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century ;    and   the    many    powerful    medical   agents 
which  it  supplied,  at  length  produced  a  great  change 
in  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine.     Many  val- 
uable medicines  of  the  vegetable  kind,  were  also  ob- 
tained from  America.      The    discovery   of  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  by  William  Harvey,  in  1620, 
imparted   a   new   impulse    to   medicine  ;    but,   like 
chemistry,  it  gave  rise  to  many  absurd  and  hurtful 
theories. 

22.  Researches  in  different  branches  of  medicine 
were  continued  with  ardor  in  the  seventeenth  centu- 
ry, in  various  parts  of  Europe ;   and  numerous  dis 
coveries  of  importance  were  made,  especially  in  an- 
atomy.     Many  theories  regarding  the  origin  of  dis- 
eases, and  their  treatment,  were  proposed,  advocated, 
and  controverted ;    but  all  these  were  overthrown  by 


T-H  E     PHYSICIAN.  227 

btahl,  Boerhaave,  and  Hoffman,  three  eminent  theo- 
rists, in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

23.  These  distinguished  men  were  followed  by  oth- 
ers of  equal  celebrity,  in  the  same  century,  who,  in 
part  at  least,  exploded  the  doctrines  of  their  predeces- 
sors.    The  present  century,  above  all  other  periods, 
is  remarkable  for  men  eminent  in  this  profession ; 
and,  although  all  do  not  exactly  agree  in  opinion,  yet, 
guided  in  their  conclusions  by  a  careful  observation 
of  facts,  they  are  less  under  the  influence  of  visionary 
theories  than  physicians  of  former  times.     Besides, 
many  of  the  subjects  of  former  controversy  having 
been  satisfactorily  settled,  there  are  now  fewer  causes 
of  division  and  excitement  among  the  medical  pro- 
fession. 

24.  Medical  science  comprises  several  branches, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  principal ;  viz.,  Anato- 
my, Surgery,  Materia  Medica,  Chemistry,  the  Theory 
and  Practice  of  Physic.     On  these  subjects,  lectures 
are  given  in  several  colleges  and  universities  in  Eu- 
rope, and  in  the  United  States.     In  this  country,  an 
attendance  on  two  regular  courses  of  lectures  entitles 
the  student  to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine,  pro- 
vided he  can  sustain  with  sufficient  ability,  an  exam- 
ination before  the  professors,  or,  as  they  are  usually 
termed,  the  medical  faculty. 

25.  The  degree  of  M.D.  conferred  by  a  college  or 
university,  is  a  passport  to  practice,  in  every  state  of 
the  Union ;  and,  in  some  states,  none  are  permitted 
to  attend  the  sick,  professionally,  without  having  first 
obtained  a  diploma  conferring  such  degree.     In  other 
states,  however,  no  legal  restrictions  are  imposed  on 
the  practitioners  of  the  healing  art ;  or,  they  are  li- 
censed by  a  board  of  physicians,  constituted  by  law 
for  the  purpose. 

26.  The   practice  of  this  profession  is  generally 
attended  with  great  labor,  and,  in  many  cases,  with 


228  THE     PHYSICIAN. 

much  perplexity.  Diseases  are  often  stubborn  or  in« 
curable,  and  effectually  baffle  the  most  skilful  prac- 
titioner. In  most  cases,  however,  diseases  are  under 
the  control  of  medical  skill ;  and  the  high  satisfac- 
tion which  a  benevolent  physician  feels,  in  relieving 
the  sufferings  of  his  fellow-creatures,  may  serve  as 
a  recompense  for  the  many  adverse  circumstances 
which  attend  the  profession. 


THE    CHEMIST. 

1.  THIS  globe,  and  every  thing  appertaining  to  it, 
is  composed  of  substances,  which  exist  either  in  a 
compound  or  simple  state,     ft  is  the  object  of  tho 
scientific  chemist  to  investigate  the  properties  of  these 
substances,  and  to  show  their  action  upon  each  other. 
By  this  science,  therefore,  compound  bodies  are  re- 
duced  to  the  simple  elements  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed,  or  new  combinations  formed. 

2.  According  to  the  preceding  definitions,  chemis- 
try comprehends  an  immense  variety  of  objects.     It 
is  scarcely  possible  to  name  a  thing  or  phenomenon 
in  the  natural  world,  to  which  it  does  not  directly  or 
indirectly  apply ;  even  the  growth  of  vegetables,  and 
the  preparation  and  digestion  of  our  food,  depend 
upon  chemical  principles. 


230  THE     CHEMIST. 

3  The  word  chemistry  is  supposed  to  be  of  Egyp- 
tian origin,  and,  in  its  primary  application,  was  the 
same  with  our  phrase  natural  philosophy.  Its  mean- 
ing was  afterwards  restricted  to  the  art  of  working 
those  metals  which  were  most  esteemed.  In  the  third 
century,  it  came  to  be  applied  to  the  pretended  art  of 
transmuting  baser  metals  into  gold.  The  science,  in 
the  latter  sense  of  the  word,  was  eagerly  cultivated 
by  the  Greeks ;  and  from  them  it  passed  to  the  Ara. 
bians,  who  introduced  it  into  Europe  under  the  name 
of  alchemy. 

4.  The  professors  of  the  art  were  dignified  with 
the  appellation  of  alchemistic  philosophers,  and  the 
leading  doctrine  of  the  sect  was,  that  all  metals  are 
composed  of  the  most  simple  substances  ;  and  that, 
consequently,  base   metals   were   capable   of  being 
changed  into  gold  ;  hence,  the  chief  object  of  their 
researches  was  the  discovery  of  an  agent,  by  which 
this  great  change  was  to  be  effected.     The  substance 
supposed  to  possess  this  wonderful  property  was  call- 
ed "  the  philosopher's  stone ;"  the  touch  of  which  was 
to  change  every  kind  of  metal  into  gold. 

5.  The  greatest  rage  for  alchemy  prevailed  be- 
tween the  tenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.    The  writers 
on  this  subject  who  appeared  during  that  period,  are 
very  numerous,  most  of  whom  are  unintelligible,  ex- ' 
cept  to  those  initiated  into  the  art.     Many  of  them, 
however,  display  great  acuteness,  and  an  extensive 
acquaintance  with  natural  objects.     They  all  boast, 
that  they  are  in  possession  of  the  philosopher's  stone, 
and  profess  the  ability  of  communicating  a  knowledge 
of  making  it  to  others. 

6.  Their  writings  and  confident  professions  gained 
almost   implicit   credit,  and   many  unwary  persons 
were  thus  exposed  to  the  tricks  of  impostors,  who 
offered  to  communicate  their  secret  for  a  pecuniary 
reward.     Having  obtained  the  sum  proposed,  they 


THE     CHEMIST.  231 

either  absconded,  or  wearied  out  their  paltrons  with 
tedious  and  expensive  processes. 

7.  Chemists,  for  a  long  time,  had  supposed  it  pos- 
sible to  discover,  by  their  art,  a  medicine  which  should 
not  only  cure,  but  prevent  all  diseases,  and  prolong 
life  to  an  indefinite  period,  even  to  immortality.    This 
notion  gradually  becoming  prevalent,  the  word  chem- 
istry acquired  a  more  extensive  application,  and  em- 
braced  not  oniy  the  art  of  making  gold,  but  also  that 
of  preparing  "the  universal   medicine."     Some  of 
these  visionary  men  asserted,  that  the  philosopher's 
stone  was  this  wonderful  panacea. 

8.  Few  readers  need  be  informed,  that  the  research- 
es for  the  philosopher's  stone,  and  the  universal  rem- 
edy, were,  at  length,  abandoned,  as  fruitless  and  vis- 
ionary;   yet  the  numerous   experiments   which   had 
been  instituted  on  these  accounts,  were  attended  with 
the  incidental  advantage  of  a  considerable  dexterity 
in  the  performance  of  chemical  operations,  together 
with  the  discovery  of  many  new  substances  and  val- 
uable facts,  which,  without  these  strong  incentives, 
would  have  remained,  at  least,  muclj.  longer  in  ob- 
scurity. 

9.  Although  none  of  the  medicines,  produced  in 
the  chemical  laboratory,  answered  the  chimerical  ex- 
pectations of  the  chemists,  in  curfng  all  diseases,  and 
in  rendering  the  perishable*,  body  of  man  immortal, 
yet  they  proved  sufficiently  valuable  in  the  healing 
art,  to  command  the  attention  of  the  profession  all 
over  Europe.     The  adoption  of  chemical  medicines, 
however,  was,  at  first,  everywhere  opposed,  either  as 
unsafe  remedies,  or  as  being  inferior  in  efficacy  to 
those  which  had  been  used  for  so  many  centuries. 

10.  These  prejudices  having  given  way  to  the  light 
of  experience,  chemical  medicines  came,  at  length,  to 
occupy  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  Materia  Medica ; 
and  their  value  within  the  present  century  has  become 


232  THE     CHEMIST. 

still  more  manifest.  One  of  the  most  useful  branch. 
es  of  chemistry,  therefore,  is  to  make  the  various 
preparations  used  in  the  medical  art. 

11.  The  most  efficient  agent  in  the   introduction 
of  chemical  medicines,  was  Theophilus  Paracelsus. 
This   singular   individual  was  born  near  Zurich,  in 
Switzerland.     Having  studied  chemistry  under  two 
masters,  he  commenced  a  rambling  life,  in  pursuit  of 
chemical  and  medical  knowledge  ;  and,  having  visited 
Italy,  France,  and  Germany,  where  he  met  with  many 
whimsical  adventures,  which  contributed   greatly  to 
advance  his  reputation,  he  was  elected,  in  1527,  to  fill 
the  chair  of  chemistry,  in  the  University  of  Basle. 

12.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  this  arrogant  professor 
was  to  burn,  with  the  utmost  solemnity,  while  seated 
in  his  chair,  the  works  of  Galen  and  Avicenna,  de- 
claring to  his  audience,  that  if  God  would  not  impart 
the  secrets  of  physic,  it  was  not  only  allowable,  but 
even  justifiable,  to  consult  the  devil.     He  also  treated 
his  contemporaries  with  the  same  insolence,  telling 
them,  in  a  preface  to  one  of  his  books,  that  "  the  very 
down  on  his  bald  pate  had  more  knowledge  than  all 
their  writers ;  the  buckle  of  his  shoes  more  learning 
than  Galen  and  Avicenna  ;    and  his  beard  more  ex- 
perience than  all  their  universities." 

13.  It  could  not  be  expected,  that  a  man  with  such 
a  temper  could  long  retain  his  situation  ;  and,  accord, 
ingly,  he  was  driven  from  it,  in  1528,  by  a  quarrel 
with  those  who  had  conferred  the  appointment.    From 
this  time,  he   rambled  about  the  country,  chiefly  in 
Germany,  leading  a  life  of  extreme  intemperance,  in 
the   lowest  company.      Nevertheless,  he  still  main- 
tained his  reputation  as  a  physician,  by  the   extraor- 
dinary cures  occasionally  effected  by  his    powerful 
remedies  ;    although  his  failures  were    equally  con- 
spicuous. 

14    But  the  most  signal  failure  of  his  remedies  oc« 


THE     CHEMIST.  ,233 

curred  in  his  own  person  ;  for,  after  having  wasted 
for  many  years  of  possessing  an  elixir  which  would 
prolong  life  to  an  indefinite  period,  he  died,  in  1541, 
at  Salzburg,  with  a  bottle  of  his  immortal  catholicon 
in  his  pocket.  The  medicines  on  which  Paracelsus 
chiefly  relied,  were  opium,  antimony,  and  various 
preparations  of  mercury.  He  has  the  merit  of  apply- 
ing the  last,  especially,  to  cases  in  which  they  had  not 
been  before  used  ;  and  upon  this  circumstance,  his 
great  reputation  depended. 

15.  We  have  been  thus  particular  in  noticing  this 
individual,  because  he  was  the  first  who  gave  public 
lectures  on  chemistry  in  Europe,  and  because  he  gave 
the  first  great  impulse  in  favor  of  chemical  medicines. 
He  also  carried  his  speculations  concerning  the  phi- 
losopher's stone   and  the  universal   remedy,  to  the 
greatest  height  of  absurdity ;    and,  by  exemplifying 
their  inutility  and  fallacy  in  his  own  person,  he  con- 
tributed more  than  any  one  else  to  their  disrepute, 
and  subsequent  banishment  from  the  science. 

16.  Researches  for  the  philosopher's  stone,  and  the 
universal  remedy,  having  been,  at  length,  relinquish- 
ed, the  chemical  facts  which  had  been  collected  be- 
came, in  the  general  estimation,  a  heap  of  rubbish 
of  littje  value.     At  this  time,  there  arose  an  individ- 
ual thoroughly  acquainted  with  these  facts,  and  capa- 
ble of  perceiving  the  important  purposes  to  which 
they  might  be  applied. 

17.  The  name  of  this  individual  was  John  Joachim 
Becher.      He   published   a   work   in   1669,  entitled 
"  Physica  Subterranica,"  by  which  he  gave  a  new 
direction  to  chemistry,  by  applying  it  to  analyzing 
and  ascertaining  the   constituent  parts   of  material 
bodies  ;  and  his  system  is  the  foundation  of  the  sci- 
ence, as  it  now  exists. 

18.  George  Ernest  Stahl,  a  medical  professor  in 
the  University  of  Halle,  adopted  the  theory  of  Becher, 


234  THE    CHEMIST. 

and,  after  his  death,  edited  the  work  just  mentioned ; 
but  he  so  simplified  and  improved  it,  that  he  made  it 
entirely  his  own  ;  and,  accordingly,  it  has  alw.ys 
been  distinguished  by  the  appellation  of  the  Stf.ilian 
theory.  The  principal  work  of  Stahl,  on  this  subject, 
was  published  in  1729  ;  and,  since  that  time,  chem- 
istry has  been  cultivated  with  ardor  in  Germany,  and 
in  other  countries  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

19.  In  France,  chemistry   became  a  fashionable 
study,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.     It 
had,  however,  been  cultivated  there  by  a  few  individ- 
uals, long  before  that  period.     Men  of  eminence  now 
appeared  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  discoveries 
in  the  science  were  made  in  rapid  succession.     Some 
attention  was  also  paid  to  it  in  Italy  and  Spain. 

20.  In  Great  Britain,  this  subject  attracted  but  lit- 
tle attention,  except  from  a  few  individuals,  until  Dr. 
Cullen  had  become  professor  of  the  science,  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  in  1756.     This  accurate  in- 
vestigator of  natural   phenomena,  succeeded  in  en- 
kindling an  enthusiasm   for  chemical  investigations 
among  the  students  ;  and  the  subsequent  experiments 
of  Dr.  Black,  Mr.  Cavendish,  Dr.  Priestley,  and  Lavoi- 
sier, which  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  constitu- 
ent parts  of  air  and  water,  diffused  the  same  ardor 
through  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 

21.  Lavoisier,  the  celebrated  French  chemist,  hav- 
ing proved  the  Stahlian  iheory  to  be  incorrect,  found, 
ed  another  on  the  chemical  affinities  and  combina- 
tions of  oxygen  with  the  various  substances  in  nature. 
This  system   has  been  generally  adopted ;   since  it 
explains  a  great  number  of  phenomena  more  satis- 
factorily than  any  other  ever  proposed.     The  great 
chemical  agent,  in  the  Stahlian  system,  was  supposed 
to  be  an  inflammable  substance,  which  was  denom- 
inated  by   the   theorist  phlogiston.     To  distinguish, 
therefore,  the  new  theory  from  the  one  which  it  su« 


THE     CHEMIST.  235 

perseded,  it  was  called  the  pneumatic,  or  anti-phlo- 
gistic  system. 

22.  In  1787,  a  new  technical  nomenclature  was  de- 
vised, by  the  aid  of  which  all  the  chemical  facts  are 
easily  retained  in  the  memory.     Twelve  or  fifteen 
terms  have  been  found  sufficient  for  the  foundation  of 
a  methodical  language  ;    and,  by  changing  the  ter- 
minations  of  these  radicals,  or  by  prefixing  certain 
words   or  syllables,  the  changes  that  take  place  in 
bodies  are  clearly  expressed.     This  valuable  innova- 
tion originated  with  Lavoisier  and  three  other  French 
chemists. 

23.  In  the  present  century,  many  important  dis- 
coveries have  been  made  in  this  science  ;  and,  among 
those  who  have  been  distinguished  for  their  research- 
es into  its  mysteries,  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  of  Great 
Britain,  shines  pre-eminent.     In  the  United  States,  it 
has  many  able  professors  ;  among  whom  are  Profes- 
sors Hare  and  Mitchell,  of  Philadelphia,  Torrey,  Ren- 
wick,  and  Draper,  of  New-York,  Henry,  of  Princeton, 
Beck,  of  Albany,  Silliman,  of  New-Haven,  and  John- 
son, of  Middletown. 

24.  Chemistry  is  so  extensive  in  its  application, 
that  we  will  not  attempt  to  describe  any  of  the  op- 
erations of  the  laboratory.     We,  therefore,  conclude 
this  article  by  recommending  this  science  to  general 
attention ;    assuring  the  uninitiated,  that  it  is  beset 
with  fewer  difficulties  than  they  are  apt  to  suppose, 
and  that  every  effort  in  the  course  will  be  attended 
with   interesting   facts    and    phenomena,   which  will 
abundantly  reward  the  labor  of  investigation. 


THE  DRUGGIST  AND  APOTHECARY. 

1.  THE  druggist  is  a  wholesale  dealer  in  drugs, 
•which,  in  commerce,  embrace  not  only  articles  used 
or  recommended  by  the  medical  profession,  but  also 
spices,  dye-stufFs,  and  paints.     The  commodities  of 
his  trade  are  obtained  from  almost  every  quarter  of 
the  globe  ;  but  especially  from  the  countries  bordering 
upon  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  from  the  East  In- 
dies  and  Spanish  America. 

2.  The  chemist  looks  to  the  druggist  for  most  of 
the  materials  employed  in  his  laboratory  ;  and  frcm 
him  the  apothecary,  physician,  and  country  merchant, 
obtain  their  chief  supply  of  medicines.     There  are, 
however,  but  few  persons  in  the  United  States,  who 
confine  themselves  exclusively  to  this  branch  of  bu- 
einess ;  for  most  of  the  druggists  are  also  apotheca. 


DRUGGIST    AND     APOTHECARY.       237 

ries,  and  sometimes  operative  or  manufacturing  chem- 
ists. 

3.  Medicinals,  when  they  come  into  the  warehouse 
of  the  druggist,  are  usually  in  a  crude  state  ;   and 
many,  or  most  of  them,  must  necessarily  undergo  a 
variety  of  changes,  of  a  chemical  or  mechanical  na- 
ture, before  they  can  be  applied  in  practice.    The  art 
by  which  these  changes  are  effected  is  called  Phar- 
macy, or  Pharmaceutics ;  and  the  books  which  treat 
of  pharmaceutical  operations  are  denominated  Phar. 
macopoeias,  or  Dispensatories. 

4.  The   operations  of  Pharmacy,  which  depend 
upon  chemical  principles,  are  conducted  chiefly  by 
the  operative  chemist ;  but  those  which  consist  mere- 
ly in  mechanical  reduction,  or  in  mixing  together  dif. 
ferent  ingredients,  to  form  compounds,  belong  prop- 
erly to  the  vocation  of  the  apothecary. 

5.  The  apothecary  sells  medicines  in  small  quan- 
tities, prepared  for  application.     Many  of  the  stand- 
ing compound  preparations  which  have  been  author- 
ized by  the  Pharmacopoeias,  and  which  are  in  regular 
demand,  he  keeps  ready  prepared ;  but  a  great  pro- 
portion of  his  business  consists  in  compounding  and 
putting  up  the  prescriptions  of  the  physician,  as  they 
are  needed  by  the  patient. 

6.  In  country  places,  where  there  are  generally  no 
apothecary-shops,  the  physicians  compound  and  pre- 
pare their  own  prescriptions;   but  in  cities,  where 
these  establishments  are  numerous,  the  medical  pro- 
fession  prefer  to  rid  themselves  of  this  trouble.     In 
most  cases,  however,  they  keep  by  them  a  few  reme- 
dies, which  can  be  applied  in  cases  of  emergency. 

7.  In  Great  Britain,  the  apothecary  is  permitted  to 
attend  sick  persons,  and  administer  medicines  either 
according  to  his  own  judgment,  or  in  conformity  with 
the  directions  of  the  physician.     He  is,  therefore,  a 
physician  of  an  inferior  order ;  and,  as  his  fees  are  • 


238       DRUGGIST    AND     APOTHECARY. 

more  moderate  than  those  of  the  regular  profession, 
his  practice  is  extensive  among  persons  who,  from 
necessity  or  inclination,  are  induced  to  study  economy 

8.  The   apothecaries   in  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  are  obliged  to  make  up  their  standing  medi- 
cines according  to  the  formulas  of  the  Dispensatories 
adopted  in  their  respective  countries ;  and  their  shops 
are  subject  to  the  visitation  of  censors,  who  have  au- 
thority to  destroy  those  medicines  which  they  may 
consider  unfit  for  use  ;  so  that  unwholesome  or  inef- 
ficient remedies  be  not  imposed  upon  the  sick.     The 
apothecaries'  halls,  in  France,  are  also  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  medical  faculty. 

9.  In  the  United  States,  there  is  no  censorship  of 
this  kind  established  by  the  public  authorities ;  yet 
the  physicians  are  careful  to  recommend  apothecaries, 
in  whom  they  have  confidence,  to  prepare  their  pre- 
scriptions.    The  professors  in  our  medical  schools 
are,  also,  particular  in  naming  to  their  students  those 
druggists  whom  they  consider  men  of  honor ;  and 
omit,  at  least,  to  name  those  who  have  been  detected 
in  selling  adulterated  medicines. 

10.  We   have,  also,  an  incorporated  college  of 
pharmacy  both  in  New-York  and  Philadelphia,  and 
in  each  of  these,  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  lee- 
tures  are  delivered  by  regular  professors.    These  in- 
stitutions, although  of  recent  origin,  have  exerted  an 
important   influence    in    reforming   and    preventing 
abuses  in  the  preparation  of  medicines ;  and  public 
opinion,  especially  in  the  cities,  is  beginning  to  render 
it  important  for  students  in  pharmacy  to  obtain  a  de- 
gree from  one  of  these  colleges.     Under  the  auspices 
of  the  institution  at  Philadelphia,  is  published  a  quar- 
terly journal,  devoted  to  pharmaceutical  science. 

11.  A.  Pharmacopoeia  for  the  United  States  was 
formed  at  Washington,  in  1820,  by  a  delegation  of 
physicians  from  the  principal  medical  societies  of  tho 


DRUGGIST     AND    APOTHECARY.       239 

Union.  A  revision  of  this  work  is  expected  to  be 
made  every  ten  years.  Dispensatories,  as  they  exist 
in  this  country,  are  founded  upon  the  Pharmaccepias, 
and  may  be  properly  considered  commentaries  upon 
them,  since  the  former  contain  the  whole  of  the  latter, 
together  with  more  minute  descriptions  of  the  sensi- 
ble and  real  properties  of  the  medicines,  as  well  as 
their  history  and  exact  mode  of  preparation. 


THE   DENTIST. 

1.  THE  human  family  is  subject  to  a  variety  of  dis- 
eases in  the  teeth,  which  generally  cause  the  final  de- 
struction or  loss  of  these  important  instruments,  un- 
less  judicious  remedies  are  applied  in  proper  season. 
These  remedies  are  administered  by  the  dentist. 

2.  There  are  few  persons,  in  proportion   to  the 
great  mass  of  the  people,  who  seem  to  be  aware  of 
the  utility  of  dentistry  ;  for,  taking  the  United  States 
together,  not  more  than  one  person  in  a  hundred  ever 
resorts  to  the  professors  of  this  art,  with  the  view  of 
obtaining  a  remedy  for  any  dental  disease  with  which 
he  may  be  afflicted.     The  common  sentiment  seems 
to  be,  that  diseases  of  the  teeth,  and  their  final  loss, 
at  different  periods  of  life,  are  inevitable  inconveni- 


THE    DENTIST.  241 

ences,  to  which  we  must  submit  with  the  same  phi- 
losophy  with  which  we  meet  other  misfortunes. 

3.  To  enable  readers  who  have  never  examined 
this  subject,  to  comprehend  its  general  nature,  we 
will  give  a  slight  sketch  of  some  of  the  irregular, 
ities  and  diseases  to  which  the  teeth  are  liable,  and, 
as  we  proceed,  speak  of  the  remedies  applied  by  the 
dentist. 

4.  Two  sets  of  teeth  regularly  appear,  at  different 
periods  of  life  ;  one  in  infancy,  and  the  other,  at  a 
later  period.     The  first  set  consists  of  twenty,  and 
the  second  of  thirty-two  teeth  ;  the  former  are  called 
infant,  and  the  latter  adult ;  and  all  these,  at  the  age 
of  six  or  seven,  are  upon  the  jaws  at  the  same  time. 

5.  At  the  age  just  mentioned,  the  infant  teeth  be 
gin  to  give  way  to  those  which  lie  deeper  in  the  sock 
ets,  and  which  are  designed  to  supersede  the  former. 
As  the  new  teeth  advance,  the  roots  of  the  first  are 
absorbed  ;  and,  after  having  been  thus  deprived  of 
their  support,  they  are  easily  removed  ;   sometimes, 
by  a  slight  pressure  of  the  tongue. 

6.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  the  whole  process  is  car- 
ried on  by  nature  with  the  utmost  regularity ;  but,  as 
she  is  not  uniformly  successful  in  this  operation,  there 
is  no  other  period  at  which  the  teeth  of  children  re- 
quire  so  much  attention   and  care.     Sometimes  the 
second  set  rise  in  the  socket  without  causing  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  roots  of  the  first.     In  such  cases,  the 
former  approach  in  an  improper  direction  ;  and,  un- 
less the  latter  are  removed  in  season,  deformity  will 
oe  the  consequence. 

7.  When,  however,  these  precautions  have  been 
neglected,  and  the  teeth  stand  in  an  irregular  manner, 
they  can  sometimes  be  reduced  to  symmetry  by  the 
dentist,  without  occasioning  much  pain.     When  the 
front  teeth  are  too  much  crowded  by  reason  of  the 
restricted  dimensions  of  the  jaw,  the  small  teeth,  sit- 

T 


242  THE     DENTIST. 

uated  next  behind  the  eye,  or  canine  teeth,  are  ex- 
tracted, one  on  each  side,  to  give  room  to  the  rest. 

8.  From  the  ages  of  six  to  fifteen  years,  the  teeth 
of  children  should  be  examined,  at  least  once  in  six 
months,  by  a  dentist,  who,  if  skilful,  can  seldom  fail 
of  rendering  these  ornaments  of  the  human  counte- 
nance regular,  healthy,  and  beautiful.     It  is  custom- 
ary in  England  and  France,  for  the  proprietors  of 
seminaries  of  learning  to  employ  a  dentist  to  visit 
their  establishments  regularly,  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
forming such  operations,  and  of  administering  such 
remedies,  as  their  pupils  may  require. 

9.  The  teeth  are  composed  of  very  hard  bone  and 
enamel.     The  latter  is  a  substance  exceeding  in  den- 
sity any  other  in  the  body.     It  covers  the  crown  of 
the  teeth,  and  is  thickest  in  those  parts  which  are 
most  exposed  to  forcible  contact  in  mastication  ;  but, 
in  no  place,  is  it  more  than  the  twelfth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness. 

10.  The  most  common  disease  of  the  teeth  is  ca- 
ries, or  decay,  and  almost  every  part  of  them  is  liable 
to  be  affected  by  it,  but  especially  the  sides  of  those 
in  front,  and  the  crowns  of  those  on  other  parts  of 
the  jaws. 

11.  The  disease  begins  its  attack  either  on  the  en- 
amel or  on  the  bony  portion,  and  gradually  extends 
itself  over  the  tooth,  until  it  reaches  the  nerves  which 
supply  its  natural  cavity.     These  having  become  ex- 
posed to  the  sudden  changes  of  temperature,  and  to 
the  contact  of  extraneous  substances  in  mastication, 
pain  and  inflammation  are  produced,  and  the  extrac- 
tion of  the  tooth  very  commonly  becomes  the  only 
means  of  relief. 

12.  All  persons  are  more  or  less  subject  to  this 
disease,  but  some  much  more  than  others  ;  and  caries 
of  a   peculiar  character  has  been  so  often  traced 
through  whole  families,  from  one  generation  to  an- 


THE      DENTIST.  243 

other,  that  it  is  considered  hereditary,  as  much  as 
any  other  disease  to  which  the  system  is  liable.  In 
many  cases,  caries  seems  to  be  the  effect  of  some 
serious  disease  which  affected  the  constitution,  while 
the  teeth  were  in  the  early  stages  of  formation. 

13.  Although  the  teeth  of  some  individuals  possess 
but  little  durability,  and,  when  caries  attacks  them,  go 
on  rapidly  to  decay,  in  spite  of  all  the  aid  which  sci- 
ence and  skill  can  afford,  yet,  there  are  comparative- 
ly but  few  instances  in  which  seasonable  and  judi. 
cious  treatment  will  not  arrest  the  progress  of  the 
disease. 

14.  When  the  teeth  are  but  slightly  affected  with 
caries,  especially  on  the  sides,  a  cure  may  be  accom- 
plished  by  the  removal  of  the  decayed  portion.     This 
is  effected,  by  the  most  approved  dentists,  chiefly  with 
small  cutting  instruments.      Formerly,  the  file  and 
the  saw  were  employed  for  this  purpose  ;    and,  by 
their  indiscriminate  and  injudicious  use,  many  teeth 
were  ruined,  and  the  art  of  dentistry  itself  brought 
into  disrepute. 

15.  Notwithstanding  the  injuries  which  have  been 
inflicted  by  the  improper  application  of  the  saw  and 
file,  in  some  instances  they  are  indispensable ;  and, 
in  the  hands  of  the  scientific  operator,  they  need  not 
be  feared.     They  are  especially  useful  in  preparing 
the  way  for  the  employment  of  other  instruments ; 
for,  in  some  cases,  the  affected  part  can  with  diffi- 
culty  be  reached  by  any  other  means.     But  filing  the 
teeth  for  the  purpose  of  improving  their  appearance, 
or  for  rendering  the  sides   more  accessible  to  the 
tooth. pick  and  brush,  seems  to  be  reprobated  by  the 
most  intelligent  part  of  the  profession. 

16.  When  the  caries  has  penetrated  far  into  the 
tooth,  and,  in  its  removal,  a  cavity  of  suitable  form 
and  dimensions  can  be  produced,  it  is  filled  with  some 
substance,  with  the  view  of  protecting  the  bone  from 


244  THE     DENTIST. 

the  action  of  extraneous  agents.  The  dentist  is  care- 
ful  to  remove  every  particle  of  the  decayed  portion, 
and  to  render  the  cavity  perfectly  dry  by  repeated 
applications  of  lint  or  raw  cotton,  before  he  attempts 
to  fill  it. 

17.  Gold  is  the  only  substance  which  possesses 
sufficient  solidity  to  withstand  the  ordinary  friction  of 
mastication,  and  which,  at  the  same  time,  is  capable 
of  resisting  the  chemical  action  of  the  substances 
that  come  in  contact  with  it ;  yet  lead  and  tin  are 
frequently  employed ;  and  many  have  been  made  to 
believe  that  they  answer  as  good,  if  not  a  better  pur- 
pose,  than  gold  itself.     The  durability  of  these  met- 
als, however,  can  never  be  depended  upon,  and  they 
ought  not  to  be  employed,  where  the  tooth  is  capable 
of  resisting  the  mechanical  force  required  to  fill  it 
properly  with  gold. 

18.  The  metal  is  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  den- 
tist  by  the  gold-beater,  in  the  manner  described  in  the 
article  which  treats  upon  the  business  of  the  latter. 
The  leaves,  however,  are  not  beaten  so  thin  as  those 
designed  for  the  common  purposes  of  the  arts.     The 
portion  to  be  applied  is  cut  from  the  leaf,  and,  after 
having  been  twisted  a  little,  is  forced  into  the  cavity. 
The  metal  is  rendered  perfectly  solid  by  means  of 
instruments  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

19.  This  operation,  properly  performed  under  fa- 
vorable circumstances,  generally  renders  the  tooth  as 
serviceable,  to  the  end  of  life,  as  if  it  had  never  been 
diseased.     The  hopes  of  the  patient,  however,  are 
sometimes  disappointed  by  the  unskilfulness  of  the 
operator,   or   by   the   general   unhealthiness   of  the 
mouth,  arising  from  tartar,  other  decayed  teeth,  or 
want  of  care  in  keeping  them  free  from  the  lodgment 
of  particles  of  food. 

20.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  have  teeth  extract- 
ed, when  they  are  affected  with  pain  ;  but  this  opera- 


THE     DENTIST.  245 

tion  is  not  always  necessary.  In  many  cases,  the 
nerve  can  be  paralyzed,  and  the  tooth  plugged.  By 
these  means,  teeth  which,  under  the  ordinary  treat- 
ment, would  be  prematurely  sacrificed,  are  often  re- 
tained,  for  years,  in  a  serviceable  state. 

21.  The  next  most  destructive  affection  to  which 
the  teeth   are   liable,  is  the   accumulation  of  tartar. 
This  is  an  earthy  substance,  deposited  from  the  sali- 
va, and  is  more  or  less  abundant  in  different  individ- 
uals.    This  deposit  is  extremely  troublesome,  and 
generally  does  much  injury  to  the  mouth,  even  before 
those  who  suffer  from  it  are  aware  of  the  mischief. 

22.  The  tartar  on  the  teeth  of  some  individuals,  is 
of  a  black  or  greenish  color,  and  very  hard  ;  on  those 
of  others,  brown  or  yellow,  and  not  so  firm.     When 
it  is  first  deposited,  it  is  soft,  and  can  be  easily  re- 
moved with  a  tooth-brush  ;  but,  if  suffered  to  remain, 
it  soon  becomes  indurated,  and  gradually  increases 
in  thickness  about  the  neck  of  the  teeth.     The  gums 
become  irritated  and  inflamed.    The  sockets  are  next 
absorbed,  and  the  teeth,  being  left  without  their  nat- 
ural support,  either  fall  out,  or  become  so  loose,  that 
they  can  be  easily  removed. 

23.  From  this  cause,  old  people  lose  their  teeth, 
when,  in  many  cases,  they  are  perfectly  sound ;  but 
comparatively  very  few  are  aware  of  the  origin  of 
this  deprivation,  or  suppose  that  these  valuable  in- 
struments can  be  retained  in  old  age.     The  loss  is 
attributed  to  the  deleterious  effects  of  calomel,  or  is 
imagined  to  be  an  evil  inseparable  from  advanced 
age. 

24.  The  affection  of  the  gums,  arising  from  causes 
just  mentioned,  is  frequently  called  scurvy,  and,  like 
caries,  produces  fetor  of  the  breath  ;  but,  when  these 
two  diseases  are  combined,  as  is  frequently  the  case, 
they  render  it  extremely  offensive.    Besides,  the  efflu- 
via arising  from  these  diseased  parts  give  rise  to 


246  THE     DENTIST. 

many  maladies  which  terminate  fatally,  if  a  remedy 
is  not  applied  sufficiently  early  to  save  the  patient. 

25.  The  obvious  remedy  for  diseases  arising  from 
tartar,  is  the  removal  of  their  cause.     This  is  effect, 
ed  by  the  dentist,  with  small  sharp  cutting  instru- 
ments of  a  suitable  form.     To   prevent   the   tartar 
from  accumulating  again,  and  to  restore  the  gums  to 
a  healthy  state,  nothing  more  is  generally  requisite 
than  the  daily  use  of  a  stiff,  elastic  brush,  and  the 
occasional  application  of  some  approved  dentrifice  or 
astringent  wash.     Sometimes  it  may  be  necessary  to 
scarify  the  gums,  or  to  apply  leeches  to  them. 

26.  The  operations  of  dentistry,  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  part  of  this  article,  are  those  which  relate 
to  the  preservation  of  the  teeth  ;  and,  if  performed  in 
a  proper  manner,  and  under  favorable  circumstances, 
they  will,  in  most  instances,  prove  effectaul.     But, 
as  few  persons  resort  to  the  dentist,  until  the  near 
approach  of  deformity,  or  until  they  are  impelled  by 
pain  to  seek  relief,  a  great  proportion  of  dental  oper- 
ations consists  in  inserting  artificial  teeth,  and  in  ex- 
tracting those  which  are  past  recovery. 

27.  When  a  tooth  has  gone  so  far  to  decay,  that  it 
cannot  be  cured  by  stopping,  it  should  not  be  suffered 
to  remain  in  the  mouth,  lest  it  infect  the  rest.    Front 
teeth,  however,  when  the  roots  remain  sound,  and 
firmly  based  in  the  sockets,  ought  not  to  be  extracted, 
as  upon  the  latter  artificial  teeth  can  be  placed  with 
great  advantage.     In  such  cases,  the  removal  of  the 
crown  only  is  necessary. 

28.  The  instruments   commonly  employed  in  ex- 
tracting teeth,  are  the  key,  or  turnkey,  the  forceps, 
the  hook,  and  the  graver,  or  punch.     These  are  sup- 
posed to  be  sufficient  to  perform  all  the  operations  of 
this  kind  which  occur  in  practice  ;   and,  although 
many  attempts  have  been  made   to   invent   others 
which  might  answer  a  better  purpose,  yet  those  we 


THE     DENTIST.  247 

have  mentioned,  in  their  improved  state,  are  likely  to 
continue  in  general  use. 

29.  It  seems  to  be  a  common  opinion,  that  any  one 
can  pull  teeth,  who  has  a  turnkey,  and  sufficient  phys- 
ical strength  to  use  it ;  accordingly,  blacksmiths,  bar. 
bers,  and  medical  students,  are  the  chief  operators  in 
this  line  of  dental   surgery.     The  many  fatal  acci- 
dents which  must  inevitably  be  the  consequence,  such 
as  breaking  the  tooth  or  jaw-bone,  are  considered 
matters  of  course.     These,  however,  seldom  happen 
with  skilful  dentists  ;  and  it  is  to  be  regretted,  that  the 
latter  are  not  always  employed,  where  unskilfulness 
may  produce  such  serious  consequences. 

30.  In  the  cut,  at  the  head  of  this  article,  is  repre- 
sented a  dentist,  about  to  extract  a  tooth  for  a  lady, 
who  may  be  supposed  to  be  in  a  state  of  alarm  at  the 
sight  of  the  instruments ;  but  he,  having  thrown  his 
right  hand,  which  holds  them,  behind  him,  shows  the 
other  containing  nothing,  with  the  view  of  allaying 
her  fears.     The  manner  in  which  teeth  are  extracted, 
needs  no  description,  since  it  is  an  every-day  opera- 
tion in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

31.  One  of  the  chief  sources  of  income  to  this  pro- 
fession, is  the  insertion  of  artificial  teeth ;   for,  al- 
though few  are  willing  to  expend  much  to  prevent  the 
loss  of  their  teeth,  many  will  incur  great  expense  in 
supplying  the  deficiencies,  after  they  have  occurred. 
So  perfectly  and  neatly  is  this  operation  performed,  by 
some  dentists,  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
teeth  which  are  natural,  and  those  which  are  artificial. 

32.  The  materials  for  artificial  teeth  were  former- 
ly found  chiefly  in  the  teeth  and  tusks  of  the  hippo, 
potamus,  and  in  the  teeth  of  some  domestic  animals ; 
but,  within  a  few  years,  a  mineral  composition,  called 
porcelain,  has  come  into  great  repute,  since  it  is  very 
beautiful,  and  is  entirely  proof  against  the  most  pow- 
erful acids. 


248  THE     DENTIST. 

33.  Surgical  operations  upon  the  teeth  were  per 
formed  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  many  of  which 
were  similar  to  those  of  the  present  day.     The  ex- 
traction  of  teeth  must  have  been  practised  at  a  period 
of  antiquity  to  which  the  records  of  medicine  do  not 
reach.     The  operation  is  recommended  by  Hippocra- 
tes, who  describes  many  of  the  diseases  to  which  the 
teeth  are  liable.     He  also  mentions  the  practice  of 
fixing  the  teeth  by  means  of  gold  wire,  and  gives  sev- 
eral formulas  for  making  dentrifices. 

34.  Celsus,   a   Roman   writer   on   medicine,  who 
flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era, 
seems  to  have  been  the  first  author  who  described 
the  method  of  extracting  teeth,  and  the  first  who  no- 
tices the  removal  of  tartar  by  means  of  cutting  instru- 
ments, as  well  as  filling  carious  teeth  with  lead  and 
other  substances,  with  the  view  of  preventing  furiner 
decay.     Soon  after  this  period,  false  teeth,  of  bone  and 
ivory,  were  introduced.     Actius,  a  writer  of  the  foui  th 
century,  is  the  first  who  mentions  the  operation  of 
filing  the  teeth. 

35.  The  return  of  barbarism  to  Europe,  nearly  ex- 
tinguished the  knowledge  of  dentistry.     As  a  branch 
of  surgery,  however,  it  was  revived  by  the  Arabian 
writer,  Albucasis,  in  the  tenth  century  ;  but,  for  many 
hundred  years  after  this  period,  it  received  but  little 
attention  from  men  of  science,  the  operations  of  sur- 
gery being  confined  chiefly  to  the  barbers. 

36.  The  first  modern  work  on  the  diseases  of  the 
teeth  was  published  at  Lyons,  in  1581.     This  was  fol- 
lowed by  many  other  publications  on  the  same  subject, 
in  the  succeeding  century.     In  the  year  1700,  it  be- 
gan to  be  required  in  France,  that  all  persons  who  in- 
tended to  practise  dentistry  in  that  country,  should 
undergo  an  examination,  to  test  their  qualifications. 
From  this  period  is  dated  the  establishment  of  the 
dental  art  as  a  distinct  branch  of  medical  practice?. 


THETEACHER. 

1.  EDUCATION,  in  antiquity,  was  entirely  a  matter 
of  domestic  concern.     In  countries  where  priestly  or 
royal  despotism  prevailed,  schools  for  the  benefit  of 
the  sons  of  the  great,  and  for  the  priests,  were  estab- 
lished.    Moses,  the  Jewish  lawgiver,  was  educated  in 
a  priestly  school  in  Egypt,  and  Cyrus,  at  a  seminary 
belonging  to  the  Persian  court.      In  Palestine,  the 
Scriptures  were  taught  in  the  schools  of  the  proph- 
ets ;  and,  at  later  periods,  in  the  synagogues,  and  in 
the  schools  of  the  Rabbies,  reading,  committing  to 
memory  the  sacred  books,  and  hearing  explanations 
of  their  meaning,  constituted  the  chief  exercises. 

2.  In  the  Grecian  cities,  boys  and  girls  were  taught 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  in  private  schools ; 
and,  after  having  completed  the  primary  course,  those 


250  THE     TEACHER. 

who  aspired  lo  higher  degrees  of  knowledge,  resorted 
to  the  instructions  of  the  philosophers  and  sophists. 
This  system  was  commenced  as  early  as  500  years 
before  the  advent  of  Christ. 

3.  Two  hundred  years  after  this  period,  the  Ro- 
mans began  to  have  primary  schools  for  boys,  in  the 
cities  ;  and,  from  the  time  of  Julius  Ca3sar,  who  con- 
ferred on  teachers  the  right  of  citizenship,  they  pos- 
sessed the  higher  institutions  of  the  grammarians  and 
the  rhetoricians.     In  the  former  of  these,  were  taught 
the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  ;    and  in  the  latter, 
young  men  of  talent  were  prepared,  by  exercises  in 
declamation,  for  speaking  in  public. 

4.  Children,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  were 
accompanied  to  school  by  slaves,  who,  from  the  per- 
formance  of  this  duty,  were  called  pedagogues ;  but, 
after  slaves  and  freedmen  had  made  acquirements  in 
literature  and  science,  they  were  frequently  employed 
as  tutors  ;  hence  the  term,  at  length,  came  to  imply  a 
teacher  of  children,  and  it  is  still  used  in  reference  to 
this  employment,  although  we  usually  connect  with  it 
the  idea  of  pedantry. 

5.  Until  the  time  of  Vespasian,  who  commenced 
his  reign  in  the  year  70  of  the  Christian  era,  the 
schools  "were  sustained  entirely  by  private  enterprise. 
That  emperor  instituted  public  professorships  of  gram- 
mar  and  rhetoric  with  fixed  salaries,  for  the  purpose 
of  educating  young  men  for  the  public  service  ;  and, 
in  A.D.  150,  Antonius  Pius  founded  imperial  schools 
in  the  larger  cities  of  the  Roman  empire.     The  most 
celebrated  place  for  the  cultivation  of  science,  in  the 
ancient  world,  was  Athens  ;  and,  to  this  city,  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  resorted,  even  as  late  as  the 
ninth  century. 

6.  Christianity,  by  degrees,  gave  a  new  turn   to 
education ;  and,  in  the  East,  it  came  gradually  under 
the  influence  of  the  clergy.     Schools  were  instituted 


THE     TEACHER.  251 

in  the  cities  and  villages  for  catechumens,  and,  in 
some  places,  those  of  a  higher  grade,  for  the  educa- 
tion of  clergymen.  Of  the  latter  kind,  that  in  Alex- 
andria was  the  most  flourishing,  from  the  second  to 
the  fourth  century. 

7.  From  the  fifth  century,  these  higher  institutions 
began  to  decline,  and  others,  called  cathedral  or  epis- 
copal schools,  seem  to  have  taken  their  place.     In 
these,  besides  theology,  were  taught  the  seven  liberal 
arts — grammar,  logic,  rhetoric,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
astronomy,  and  music  ;  of  which  the  three  first  were 
called  the  trivium,  and  the  four  last  the  quadrivium. 
The  text-book  employed  was  the  Encyclopaedia  of 
Marcianus    Capella,   of  Africa.  *  This   compendium 
was  published  at  Rome,  A.D.  470 ;  and,  although  a 
meagre  production,  it  maintained  its  reputation  in  the 
schools  of-  Europe  more  than  1000  years. 

8.  The  imperial  schools  established  by  Antoninus 
Pius,  declined,  and  finally  became  extinct,  in  the  con. 
fusion  that  followed  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians ; 
but  their  places  were  supplied  by  the  parochial  and 
cathedral  schools  just  mentioned.     These,  however, 
were  surpassed,  in  the  sixth  century,  by  the  conventual 
schools,  which  were  originally  designed  to  prepare 
persons  for  the  monastic  life,  but  which  soon  began 
to  be  resorted  to  by  laymen. 

9.  These  schools  were  connected  with  the  convents 
belonging  to  the  order  of  St.  Benedict,  and  served  as 
the  chief  glimmering  lights  during  the  darkest  period 
between  ancient  and  modern  civilization,  in  Europe. 
They  flourished  in  Ireland,  England,  France,  and 
Germany,  from  the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  century. 
The  teachers  of  these  seminaries  were  called  scholas- 
lici,  and  from  them  the  scholastic  philosophy  derived 
its  origin  and  name. 

10.  In  the  year  789,  Charlemagne,  king  of  the 
Franks,  issued  a  decree  for  the  improvement  of  the 


252  THE    TEACHER. 

schools  of  his  empire,  and  for  increasing  their  num. 
her.  Not  only  every  bishop's  see  and  every  convent, 
but  every  parish,  was  to  have  its  school ;  the  two  for- 
mer  for  the  education  of  clergymen  and  public  offi- 
cers, and  the  latter  for  the  lower  classes  of  people. 
This  monarch  instituted  an  academy  of  learned  men, 
to  whom  he  himself  resorted  for  instruction,  and 
whom  he  employed  to  educate  his  children,  and  a 
select  number  of  the  sons  of  the  nobility  and  distin- 
guished persons. 

11.  The  encouragement  which  thes6  schools  had 
received  from  government  was  soon  discontinued  af- 
ter the  death  of  this  monarch,  and  his  school  estab- 
lishment declined  like  that  of  Alfred  the  Great,  which 
was  commenced  in  the  ninth  century,  on  a  scale  of 
equal  liberality.     The  designs  of  the  English  mon- 
arch were  frustrated  by  the  invasions  of  the  Danes. 

12.  In   the   mean   time,  the  Jewish  rabbies  had 
schools  in  Syria  and  in  Northern  Africa,  as  well  as  in 
Europe,  which  contributed  to  the  preservation  of  an- 
cient learning.     Arabian  schools  were  also  establish- 
ed, in  the  ninth  century,  by  the  followers  of  Moham- 
med, in  their  Eastern  and  African  caliphates,  and  in 
their  Moorish  dominions  in  Spain.     Through  these 
institutions,  the  mathematical  and  medical  sciences 
were  again  revived  in  Europe. 

13.  The  cathedral  and  conventual  schools  contin- 
ued, for  a  long  time,  the  principal  institutions  for  edu- 
cation in  Europe  ;  and  from  them  proceeded  many 
eminent  men.     By  degrees  the  light  of  science  began 
to  shine   more  brightly  ;   teachers  of  eminence  ap- 
peared in  different  places,  who  collected  around  them 
a  great   number   of  scholars ;   and  a  new  kind  of 
schools  arose,  the  heads  of  which  assumed  the  name 
of  rectores. 

14.  In  Paris,  several  of  these  teachers  gave  in- 
structions in  various  branches,  but  chiefly  in  rhetoric, 


THE     TEACHER.  253 

philosophy,  and  theology.  The  schools  thus  collected 
under  different  masters,  were,  in  1206,  united  under 
one  rector ;  and,  on  this  account,  the  whole  mass  of 
teachers  and  scholars  was  denominated  universitas. 
Universities,  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  arose  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  and  some  of  them,  about  the  same  time. 
Those  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  according  to  some 
writers,  were  established  about  the  year  1200 ;  and 
the  two  first  of  these  institutions  in  Germany  were 
founded  at  Prague  and  Vienna,  the  former  in  1348, 
and  the  latter  in  1365. 

15.  The  division  of  the  students  into  four  nations 
was  an  essential  feature  in  the  early  universities.     It 
arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  pupils  coming 
from  different  countries,  spoke  different  languages. 
Those  whose  language  was  the  same  or  similar,  would 
naturally  associate  together,  and  attend  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  same  teachers.     This  division  into  na- 
tions is  supposed  to  have  grown  up  at  Paris,  previous 
to  the  formal  union  of  the  several  schools  under  one 
rector. 

16.  The  first  teachers,  from  whose  exertions  the 
universities  originated,  commenced  their  public  in- 
structions without  permission  from  established   au- 
thority.    Subsequently,  the  state  and  university  were 
careful  to  prevent  all  persons  from  giving  lectures, 
who  were  not  well  qualified  for  the  employment.    Ex. 
aminations  were  therefore  instituted  to  determine  the 
capabilities  of  students.   Those  who  were  found  com- 
petent, received  a  formal  permission  to  teach,  accom- 
panied  with  certain  symbols  in  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

17.  The  first  academical  degree  was  that  of  lacca- 
laureus ,  the  second,  licentiatus ;  and  the  third  magis, 
ter.     The  last  of  these  entitled  the  student  to  all  the 
privileges  of  his  former  teachers,  and  constituted  him 
one  of  the  facuUas  artium — the  faculty  of  the  seven 
liberal  ails,  since  called  the  philosophic  faculty.    Tho 


254  THE    TEACHER. 

other  faculties  were  those  af  theology,  law,  and  med- 
icine. The  first  of  these  was  instituted  at  Paris  in 
1259,  and  the  two  last,  in  1260.  The  faculties  elect- 
ed  deans  from  among  their  number,  who,  with  the 
procuratores,  or  heads  of  the  four  nations  of  students, 
represented  the  university.  These  representatives 
possessed  the  power  of  conferring  degrees  in  the  dif- 
ferent departments  of  literature  and  science. 

18.  Among  the  public  institutions  of  the  early  uni- 
versities were  the  colleges,  (collegia,)  buildings  in 
which  students,  especially  those  who  were  poor,  might 
live  together,  under  superintendents,  without  paying 
for  their  lodging.    In  some  cases,  they  received  their 
board,  and  frequently  other  allowances,  gratis.    These 
institutions  were  commenced  at  Paris  ;  but  here,  as 
well  as  in  other  places,  they  did  not  continue  the  asy- 
lums of  the  necessitous  only.     In  France  and  Eng- 
land, the  buildings  of  universities  are  composed  chiefly 
of  these  colleges,  in  which  the  students  reside,  and 
in  which  the  business  of  instruction  is  mainly  car- 
ried  on. 

19.  The  teachers  in  the  universities  were  at  first 
paid  for  their  services  by  the  students.     At  a  latei 
period,  the  magistrates  of  the  town  or  city  where  the 
institution  was  located,  made   presents   to   eminent 
scholars,  to  induce  them  to  remain.     This  practice 
finally  led  to  the  payment  of  regular  salaries.     From 
and  after  the  fourteenth  century,  universities  were  not 
left  to  grow  up  of  themselves  as  formerly,  but  were 
expressly  established  by  public  authorities  or  by  the 
popes. 

20.  The  inactivity  and  luxury  of  the  clergy,  had 
led  to  the  neglect  of  the  old  seminaries  of  learning. 
The  universities  were  therefore  necessary,  not  only 
to  revive  the  taste  for  science  and  literature,  but  also 
to  form  a  new  body  of  teachers.     These  institutions, 
however,  at  length  became  subject  to  undue  clerical 


THE     TEACHER,  255 

influence,  since  the  monks  obtained  admission  into 
them  as  teachers,  and  then  labored  to  increase  the 
importance  of  their  several  orders,  as  well  as  the 
power  of  the  Roman  pontiff. 

21.  The  monks,  also,  connected,  with  their  con- 
vents,  popular  schools,  and  undertook  the  education 
of  the  children  in  the  cities.     But  their  method  of  in- 
struction  was  exceedingly  defective,  since  the  intelli- 
gent investigation  of  the  subjects  studied  was  little 
encouraged,  and  since  the  memory  of  the  pupils  was 
brought  into  requisition  to  the  almost  entire  exclusion 
of  the  other  faculties  of  the  mind. 

22.  In  the  lower  parish  schools,  the  children  were 
not  permitted  to  learn  to  write,  the  monks  being  de- 
sirous of  confining  to  the  clergy  the  practice  of  this 
art,  which  was  very  lucrative  before  the  invention  of 
printing.     The  art  was  called  ars  clericalis ;  and,  for 
a   long   time,   the  privilege   of.  establishing   writing 
schools  for  the  children  of  citizens,  was  a  matter  of 
negotiation  between  the  magistrates  and  the  clergy. 

23.  But  the  citizens  becoming,  at  length,  more  in- 
dependent,  the  magistrates  themselves  began  to  su- 
perintend the  education  of  youth.      Trivial  schools 
were  established,  in  which  the  trivium,  and  reading 
and  writing,  were  taught ;  but  for  these,  as  well  aa 
for  the  cathedral  and  parish  schools,  which  had  been 
neglected  for  some  time  by  the  higher  clergy,  itiner- 
ant monks  and  students  were'  employed  as  teachers. 

24.  The  elder  pupils  of  the  highest  class  frequently 
wandered  from  one  school  to  another,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  pursuing  their  studies,  sometimes  taking  with 
them  younger  scholars,  whom  they  compelled  to  beg 
or  steal,  in  order  to  supply  their  wants.     As  late  as 
the  sixteenth  century,  Luther  complains  that  these 
vacantivi  (or  idlers)  were  the  persons  chiefly  employ- 
ed as  schoolmasters  in  Germany. 

25.  A  pious  fraternity,  called  Jeronymites,  consist. 


256  THE      TEACHER. 

ing  of  clergymen  and  laymen,  who  lived  together, 
and  occupied  themselves  partly  in  mechanic  arts,  and 
partly  in  the  instruction  of  youth,  exerted  considerable 
influence  on  education  in  general.  They  first  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Italy,  and  afterwards  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, on  the  Rhine,  and  in  Northern  Germany. 

26.  Much  was  done  during  the  last  half  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  in  the  one   hundred  yeara 
that  followed,  to  encourage  the  study  of  the  ancient 
classics.     The  attention  of  literary  men  was  turned 
to  these  interesting  remains  of  antiquity  by  the  arri- 
val of  many  learned  Greeks,  who  had  fled  from  Turk- 
ish oppression,  and  who  had  brought  with  them  the 
ancient  writings. 

27.  These  treasures  of  former  civilization  were 
unfolded  to  the  modern  world  by  the  art  of  printing, 
which  was  invented  in  1441 ;  and  the  reformation, 
which  commenced  in  1517,  also  aided  the  advance- 
ment of  education.     The  corporations  of  the  German 
cities  in  which  the  reformed  religion  was  received, 
founded  seminaries,  called  gymnasia,  and  lyceums,  with 
permanent  professorships.     A  vast  amount  of  prop- 
erty, belonging  to  the  convents  and  the  Church,  was 
confiscated  by  the   governments,   and   appropriated 
chiefly  to  the  promotion  of  education. 

28.  The  schools  in  the  countries  which  adhered  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  however,  continued  in 
nearly  the  same  state,  until  the  Jesuit  schools  arose, 
towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.     These, 
on  account  of  the  ability  with  which  they  were  con. 
ducted,  soon  gained  the  ascendency,  and  for  a  long 
lime  maintained  their  reputation  ;  but  they,  at  length, 
degenerated,  and  finally  became  extinct,  on  the  sup. 
pression  of  the  order  of  Jesuits  in  1773. 

29.  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  have,  for  a  long  time, 
been  inactive  in  relation  to  education,  it  being  left  en- 
tirely t«  the  clergy,  and  the  efforts  of  the  people  in 


THE      TEACHER.  257 

their  individual  capacity.  Much  has  been  done  in 
Austria,  within  fifty  years,  to  advance  this  important 
interest.  Under  the  late  emperor,  professorships  were 
constituted,  in  the  universities  and  cathedral  semina- 
ries,  for  the  instruction  of  teachers ;  and  gymnasia, 
common  and  Sunday  schools,  were  established  in  al. 
most  every  part  of  the  kingdom. 

30.  The  general  organization  of  schools  in  France, 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  was  similar  to  that  of  most 
other  Catholic  countries.     The  government  did  no- 
thing for  the  education  of  the  people  at  large ;  and 
the  Church,  which  possessed  a  large  proportion  of  the 
property  of  the  nation,  left  the  people  in  total  igno- 
rance ;  whence  may  have  arisen  much  of  the  atrocity 
which  marked  the  early  part  of  the  revolution. 

31.  During  the  popular  reign,  the  education  of 
youth  was  declared  to  be  under  the  care  of  the  state, 
and  many  schools,  called  polytechnic,  were  establish- 
ed.    Napoleon,  also,  afterwards  instituted  several  mil- 
itary schools,  and  contemplated  the  introduction  of  a 
system  of  general  education.     With  this  view,  he  in- 
stituted an  imperial  university,  which  was  to  have  the 
supreme  direction  of  instruction  in  France  ;  but  his 
designs  were  but  partially  carried  into  effect. 

32.  When  the  Bourbons  were  again  restored  to  the 
throne  of  France,  they,  with  the  clergy,  labored  to 
restore  the  old  order  of  things  ;  and,  to  keep  the  com- 
mon people  from  becoming  dangerous,  the  Lancaa 
terian  schools,  established  in  1816,' were  abolished. 
Efficient  measurae,  however,  have  been  lately  adopt- 
ed by  Louis  Philip  to  establish  schools  of  different 
grades  throughout  his  kingdom. 

33.  In  England  and  Ireland,  although  the  middling 
and   higher  classes  are   comparatively  well  educa- 
ted,  no  system  of  general  instruction  has  ever  been 
established   for  the  benefit  of  the  common  people. 
Much,  however,  has  been  accomplished  by  charitj 


258  THE     TEACHER. 

and  Sunday  schools  ;  the  former  of  which  were  com- 
menced in  1698,  and  the  latter  in  1812.  Besides 
these,  there  are  numerous  charitable  foundations  on 
which  many  persons  of  limited  means  have  been  ed- 
ucated at  the  higher  institutions. 

34.  In  Scotland,  more  liberal  provisions  have  been 
made  for  general  education.     The  system  was  com- 
menced in  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  when,  by 
an  act  of  Parliament,  every  parish  was  required  to 
maintain  a  school.    The  people  have  so  far  improved 
their  privileges,  that  nearly  all  of  the  inhabitants  of 
that  part  of  Great  Britain  can  read  and  write. 

35.  The  government  of  Russia,  during  the  last  and 
present  century,  has  directed  some  attention  to  the 
promotion  of  education.     According  to  the  decrees 
of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  schools  of  different  grades 
were  to  be  established  throughout  the  empire  ;  but 
these  decrees  have  been  yet  only  partially  executed. 

36.  In  no  part  of  the  world  has  the  education  of 
all  classes  of  people  been  more  encouraged  than  in 
the  United  States.     This  has  arisen  chiefly  from  the 
circumstance,  that  a  remarkable  proportion  of  the  col- 
onists were  persons  of  education.     This  was  particu- 
larly the  case  with  those  of  New-England,  where  the 
instruction  of  youth,  from  the  very  beginning  of  the 
settlements,  was  made  a  matter  of  public  concern. 

37.  The  principle  of  making  public  provision  for 
this  purpose,  thus  early  adopted,  has  never  been  de- 
serted ;  on  the  contrary,  it  has  become  so  deeply  in- 
terwoven with  the  social  condition  of  the  people  of 
New-England,  that  there  are  few  families  in  that  part 
of  the  Union,  which  are  not  within  reach  of  a  public 
school ;  and,  in  every  state  where  the  influence  of 
the  people  from  that  section  of  the  country  is  predom- 
inant, public  schools  have  been  organized  by  legal 
provisions,  and  a  fund  has  been  provided,  by  which  at 
least  a  part  of  the  expense  of  supporting  them  is  paid. 


TfcE    TEACHER.  259 

38.  In  all  the  states  in  which  these  primary  insti- 
tutions are  established  by  legislative  enactments,  they 
are  kept  in  operation,  in  country  places,  between  six 
and  nine  months  of  the  year.     A  master  is  employed 
in  the  winter,  and  a  mistress,  in  the  summer :  the  for- 
mer receives  for  his  services  from  ten  to  fifteen  dol- 
lars per  month,  and  the  latter,  from  seventy-five  cents 
to  two  dollars  per  week,  together  with  boarding.    The 
teachers,  however,  during  their  engagement  are  com- 
pelled  to  reside  in  the  different  families  of  the  district, 
their  stay  at  each  place  being  determined,  with  scru- 
pulous exactness,  by  the  number  of  children  sent  to 
the  school. 

39.  From  the  low  salaries  received  for  these  im- 
portant services,  and  the  short  periods  for  which  en- 
gagements are  made,  it  is  evident,  that  teaching  a 
district  school  cannot  be  pursued  as  a  regular  em- 
ployment.    These  schools  are,  therefore,  supplied  by 
persons  who,  during  the  rest  of  the  year,  follow  some 
other  business ;  or  by  students,  who  rely,  in  part  or 
entirely,  on  their  own  exertions  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  their  academical,  collegiate,  or  professional 
education. 

40.  These  schools  are,  no  doubt,  institutions  of 
great  value  ;  but,  in  the  states  where  they  have  been 
established,  they  are  evidently  much  overrated.    They 
fail  in  accomplishing  the  ends  for  which  they  have 
been  instituted,  through  the  extreme  tenacity  with 
which  the  people  adhere  to  ancient  and  defective 
methods  of  instruction,  the  frequent  change  of  teach- 
ers, and  the  small  compensation  allowed  for  the  ser- 
vices of  competent  instructors. 

41.  In  the  cities  and  populous  towns  or  villages, 
the  public  schools  are  kept  up  during  the  whole  of 
the  year,  and  the  system  of  instruction  is  generally 
better  than  that  pursued  in  the  country.     In  New- 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  in  some  other  cit- 


260  THE     TEACHER. 

ies,  the  Lancasterian  plan  of  mutual  instruction,  with 
many  modifications,  is  preferred,  principally  on  ac. 
count  of  its  cheapness. 

42.  Select-schools  and  private  academies  are,  also, 
very  numerous.     These  are  located  chiefly  in  the 
cities  and  populous  towns,  and  are  supported  entirely 
by  fees  for  tuition  received  from  the  parents  or  guar- 
dians of  the  pupils.     These  institutions  do  not  differ 
essentially  from  those  of  a  private  nature  in  similar 
situations  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  where 
common  schools  are  not  established  by  law. 

43.  In  the  Southern  states,  wealthy  families  often 
employ   private   tutors.     Sometimes   two,  three,  or 
more  families,  and  even  a  whole  neighborhood,  unite 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  school ;  and,  to  induce 
a  teacher  to  commence  or  continue  his  labors  among 
them,  an  adequate  amount  is  made  up  beforehand  by 
subscription.    South  of  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and 
the  Ohio  Riverj  such  engagements  are  commonly 
made  for  a  year,  as,  in  that  section  of  the  Union,  the 
opinion  prevails,  that  a  teacher  can  do  but  little  to- 
wards improving  his  pupils  in  a.  much  shorter  time. 

44.  The  literary  institutions  which  are  next  above 
the  common  schools,  and  which  are  established  by 
legislative   authority,  are  the  academies,  of  which 
there  are  between  five  and  six  hundred  in  the  United 
States.     Some  of  these  have  been  founded  by  the 
funds  of  the  state  in  which  they  are  located,  some,  by 
the  union  of  a  few  spirited  individuals,  or  by  private 
bequests. 

45.  The  course  of  instruction  pursued  in  these 
seminaries  of  learning  varies  considerably  from  each 
other.     In  some  of  them,  it  is  confined  chiefly  to  tho 
common  branches  of  education  ;  in  others,  the  course 
is   pretty  extensive,  embracing   natural  and   moral 
philosophy,  chemistry,  belles   lettres,   and   a  sound 
Bourse  of  mathematics,  together  with  Latin,  Greek, 


THE    TEACHER.  261 

and  some  of  the  modern  languages.  One  great  ob- 
ject in  these  institutions  is  to  prepare  students  for  col- 
lege.  The  teacher  who  has  charge  of  an  academy  is 
called  the  principal,  while  the  teacher  who  may  aid 
him  in  his  labors  is  denominated  the  assistant  or 
usher. 

46.  The  highest  institutions  of  learning  among  us 
are  the  colleges  and  universities.     Between  these, 
however,  there  seems  to  be  but  little  difference,  since 
the  course  of  studies  is  nearly  or  quite  the  same  in 
both,  and  since  the  charters  obtained  from  the  legis- 
latures grant  to  both  similar  powers  of  conferring 
honorary  degrees.     The  whole  number  of  these  es- 
tablishments  in  the  United  States  is  about  eighty. 

47.  The  principal  teachers  in  the  colleges  are  de- 
nominated professors,  who   confine  their   labors  to 
communicating  instructions  in  particular  branches  of 
literature  or  science.     These  are  aided  by  assistants 
called  tutors.     The  latter  are  generally  young  men, 
who  devote  two  or  three  years  to  this  employment, 
before  entering  upon  the  practice  of  a  profession. 
The  number  of  professors  and  tutors  in  the  several 
colleges  varies  according  to  their  amount  of  funds, 
and  number  of  students. 


END   OF   VOL. 


3 . 

BO 


A     000574019     6 


